硕士学位论文基于语料库的《长恨歌》译者文体研究CORPUS-BASEDRESEARCHONTRANSLTOR’SSTYLEOFCHANGHENGE任敬辉哈尔滨工业大学2013年7月
国内图书分类号：H314国际图书分类号：802.0文学硕士学位论文基于语料库的《长恨歌》译者文体研究硕士研究生：任敬辉导师：王立欣教授申请学位：文学硕士学科、专业：外国语言学及应用语言学所在单位：外国语学院答辩日期：2013年7月4日授予学位单位：哈尔滨工业大学
ClassifiedIndex:H314U.D.C.:802.0GraduationThesisfortheM.A.DegreeCorpus-basedResearchonTranslator’sStyleofChangHenGeCandidate:RENJinghuiSupervisor:Prof.WANGLixinAcademicDegreeAppliedfor:MasterofArtsSpecialty:ForeignLinguisticsandAppliedLinguisticsAffiliation:SchoolofForeignLanguagesDateofOralExamination:July4,2013DegreeConferringInstitution:HarbinInstituteofTechnology
HarbinInstituteofTechnologyGraduationThesisfortheMADegree哈尔滨工业大学硕士论文摘要译者文体一般是指译者在翻译创作过程中所表现出来的译者痕迹，具体表现为译者在翻译过程中翻译策略的选择，译者个人偏爱的表达形式和重复出现的语言行为方式，即典型语言应用习惯。长期以来，翻译活动被视为一种模仿性活动，而不是创造性活动，译者只是服务于源语文本风格的再现，因而译者文体研究被严重忽视。然而，随着语料库语言学的兴起，语料库被广泛应用于译者文体研究中。但是，基于语料库的译者文体研究现仍处于初始阶段，理论探索居多，结合实证案例探讨译者文体特征的较少。基于此，本文以白居易名作《长恨歌》及其英译本为研究蓝本，以基于语料库的翻译文体学框架为理论基础，自建汉英平行语料库与单语可比语料库，采用定量与定性相结合的方法、语际对比和语内类比相结合的对比模式，通过计算机软件对各类文本的文体特征进行语言学的量化研究，并从翻译环境、文化背景及翻译取向几方面对其加以分析。本文从以下四个方面展开：1)系统梳理中西方对《长恨歌》翻译文本的研究现状，界定译者文体的主要研究内容，并指出当前研究中存在的定性分析居多、研究范式单一、实证结合少等缺陷，进一步明确本研究的重要性。2)根据研究需要，本文自建由《长恨歌》及其四个英译本组成的汉英平行语料库，及自建英语诗歌参照库与四个英译本构成单语类可比语料库。3)按照基于语料库的翻译文体学研究范式，借助分析软件WordSmithTools，运用语言形式参数，从文本的词汇、句法、语篇三个层面考察译者文体特征，辅以例句分析。4）从当时国内外的翻译环境、译者的文化背景、翻译取向几个方面探讨，试图为不同的译者文体特征找到合理的解释。研究结论如下：许渊冲总体上韵译特征明显，具体来说意译为主，直译为辅，音译补充，贴近原语文化；Fletcher文本难度较低，直译为主，音译为-I-
HarbinInstituteofTechnologyGraduationThesisfortheMADegree哈尔滨工业大学硕士论文辅，尾句押韵，淡化补充，目的语导向形，考虑目标语受众的接受能力；Glies散体译文，信息量大，直译为主，意译为辅，音译补充，原语导向型；杨宪益在翻译媒介中趋于保持中立，直译特征明显，意译为辅，淡化与音译补充；译者文体特征主要受到当时的翻译环境、译者文化背景及翻译取向几方面的影响和制约。本文在诗歌韵律方面的研究，突破了传统的语料库研究模式，将英语诗歌韵律分类特点引入译者文体研究中，力图促进基于语料库的翻译文体学理论研究的发展。关键词：基于语料库的研究；长恨歌；译者文体-II-
HarbinInstituteofTechnologyGraduationThesisfortheMADegree哈尔滨工业大学硕士论文AbstractThetranslator’sstylegenerallyreferstoindividualcharacteristicsthattranslatorsperformintheprocessofthetranslation,which,indetail,canbestatedastypicallanguagehabitsoftranslators,mainlyinvolvingtheselectionoftranslationstrategies,personalpreferencesoftheexpressionsaswellaslinguisticphenomenathatfrequentlyoccurintranslations.Translationactivitieshavebeenconsideredasimitationbehaviorsratherthancreativeactivitiesforquitealongtime.Conventionally,translatorsaredestinedtoreproducetheoriginalstyleofsourcelanguagetexts.Henceresearchesonthetranslator’sstylehavebeenlandedinadisadvantagedposition.Afterwards,withtheupsurgeofCorpusLinguistics,corpushasbeenbroadlyappliedinstudiesofthetranslator’sstyle.However,corpus-basedresearchesontranslationalstylisticstudiesarestillataninitialstage,whichmainlyblossomsintheoreticalexplorationsbutaredeficientinminingresearches.Outofthisdeficiency,thisthesisadoptsChangHenGe,arenownedpoemfromBaiJuyi,anditstranslationsastheresearchblueprintandconstructsaC-Ebilingualparallelcorpusandamonolingualcomparablecorpusforstudies.Itemploysthecorpus-basedtranslationalstylisticsasthetheoreticalframework,utilizesquantitativeapproacheswithqualitativemethods,andsynthesizesmonolingualcomparablemodesandbilingualparallelmodes,whichaimstocarryoutadescriptiveexplorationtowardsdifferentstylesoftranslatorswiththecomputationalassistanceandtriestodiscoverpossiblereasonsaccountingfordistinctivestyles.Thethesisiselaboratedfromthefollowingfouraspects:Firstly,thethesismakesasystematicreviewoncurrentstudiesofChangHenGe’stranslationsand-III-
HarbinInstituteofTechnologyGraduationThesisfortheMADegree哈尔滨工业大学硕士论文definesthetranslator’sstyleandpointsoutthatpreviousstudiesaremostlyfeaturedwithqualitativemethods,unitaryparadigmandinsufficientmininganalysessoastoclarifythetheoreticalandpracticalsignificancesofthepresentresearch.Second,accordingtocorpus-basedapproaches,thethesisconductsaC-EbilingualcorpuscomprisedbyChangHenGeanditsfourtranslationsandestablishesaBritishPoeticCorpusforthemonolingualcomparablecorpus.Apartfromthat,underthetheoreticalfoundationofthecorpus-basedtranslationalstylistics,thethesisappliesWordSmithToolsandlinguisticparametersintoexplorationsonthetranslator’sstylefromlexical,syntacticandtextuallevels.Finally,thethesistriestoexaminepossiblereasonsaccountingfordifferentstylesoftranslators.Accordingtodataanalysis,findingsareobtainedasfollows:XuYuanchong’sstyleisprominentinthemetricaltranslationandisclosetothesourcelanguageculture,withtheliberaltranslationlargelyadoptedandtransliterationsassupplements.Fletcher’sstyleconsiderstheacceptanceoftargetreadersandisorientedbythetargetlanguage.Besides,hisstyleisfeaturedwithendrhymes,withtheliteraltranslationmainlyemployedandtransliterationsandgeneralizationsassupplements.Glies’sprosedeliversmoreinformationandisaffectedbythesourcelanguage.Inaddition,hemainlyutilizesliteraltranslationswithfreetranslationsandtransliterationsslightlyadopted.ForYangHsien-yiandGladysYang,theyremainneutralintheprocessofthetranslationandtheirstyleisalsofeaturedwiththeword-by-wordtranslation.What’smore,stylesoftranslatorsarecloselyrelatedtothetranslationenvironment,culturalbackgroundsandtranslationorientations.-IV-
HarbinInstituteofTechnologyGraduationThesisfortheMADegree哈尔滨工业大学硕士论文Thethesisinitiatesanewresearchmodeltowardsthestudyonrhythmsofpoetry,applyingrhythmschemesofEnglishpoetryintostudiesofthetranslator’sstyle,whichstrivestobroadentheframeworkofcorpus-basedtranslationalstylistics.Keywords:corpus-basedresearch;ChangHenGe;translator’sstyle-V-
HarbinInstituteofTechnologyGraduationThesisfortheMADegree哈尔滨工业大学硕士论文Contents摘要.........................................................................................................................IAbstract................................................................................................................IIIChapter1Introduction...........................................................................................11.1Background......................................................................................11.2Objective..........................................................................................31.3Significance.....................................................................................41.3.1TheoreticalConsideration.......................................................41.3.2PracticalConsideration...........................................................51.4Organization.....................................................................................5Chapter2LiteratureReview................................................................................72.1StudiesofTranslationsofChangHenGe........................................72.1.1DomesticStudiesonTranslationsofChangHenGe..............72.1.2OverseasStudiesonTranslationsofChangHenGe...............82.2PreviousStudiesonTranslator’sStyle.............................................92.2.1StudiesonTranslator’sStyleAbroad....................................102.2.2StudiesonTranslator’sStyleinChina..................................122.3Corpus-basedResearchesonTranslator’sStyle............................132.3.1ReviewonCorpus-basedTranslationStudies.......................142.3.2StatusQuoofCorpus-basedStudiesonTranslator’sStyle...162.3.3StudiesonCorpus-basedTranslationalStylistics..................17Chapter3ResearchMethodology......................................................................203.1CorpusConstruction......................................................................203.2ResearchInstrument.......................................................................253.3TextualAnalysis.............................................................................26Chapter4DataAnalysisandDiscussion............................................................274.1Translator’sStylefromThreeLevels.............................................274.1.1Translator’sStyleManifestedatLexicalLevel.....................274.1.2Translator’sStyleManifestedatSyntacticLevel..................534.1.3Translator’sStyleManifestedatTextualLevel.....................664.1.4SectionReview.....................................................................764.2PossibleReasonsforTranslator’sStyle.........................................774.2.1TranslationEnvironment.......................................................774.2.2CulturalBackgroundsandTranslationOrientations.............824.2.3SectionReview.....................................................................87Chapter5Conclusions.........................................................................................885.1SummaryofMajorFindings..........................................................88-VI-
HarbinInstituteofTechnologyGraduationThesisfortheMADegree哈尔滨工业大学硕士论文5.2LimitationsandSuggestions..........................................................92References.............................................................................................................94Appendix1SpecifiedTermsofAddressingTitles...........................................101Appendix2SpecifiedTermsofSpecialSpots..................................................102Appendix3SpecifiedTermsofSpecialSceneries...........................................103Appendix4SpecifiedTermsofSpecialCulture-loadedwords......................104Appendix5Tag-set.............................................................................................106Acknowledgements............................................................................................107PaperPublishedduringStudy..........................................................................108哈尔滨工业大学学位论文原创性声明和使用权限..........................................109-VII-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegreeChapter1IntroductionChapter1mainlyconcentratesonthebackground,theobjective,thetheoreticalandpracticalsignificances,aswellastheoveralllayoutofthethesis.1.1BackgroundInthispart,boththehistoricalbackgroundandwritingfeaturesofChangHenGeareexpectedtobeintroducedandreasonsforadoptingcurrentEnglishversionsforstudyaresupplied.BaiJuyi,oneofthemostrenownedandinfluentialpoetsinTangDynasty,hasbeenknownasthe“KingofPoets”inChineseliterature,whoinitiativelyhasledtheNewYuefuMovementaimedattransformingboththeformandcontentsofthepoetry.PoetrybeforeNewYuefuMovementwasfeaturedwiththestrictrhythmandrhymesinformaswellasimpracticalincontents.BaiJuyithenadvocatedtheconcepttoenrichboththestylesandsubjectsofthepoetry,namely,freeinformbutstillmetricalandwidelyrangedincontents.ChangHenGewasdeemedasoneofhismostrepresentativeworksduringthatmovement.Besides,thispoemwasalsoacknowledgedas“thegreatestclassicalnarrativepoeminChineseliterature”,presentingamovingtragicstorybetweentheEmperorMingofTangandYangKuei-fei(LadyYang)duringtheAnShiRebellionPeriod,thethemeofwhichwaseternalhatredtowardsthetragiclove(Zhang,2005,p.10).Withthecombinationofmetricalstylesandmusicalcharacteristics,ChangHeGewasuniqueinform.Inaddition,thewholepoemtookanexplicitwaytostatethestorybasedonatruehistoricaleventwithoutmuchexaggerationincontentsandwordplays.Generally,thewritingfeaturesofChangHeGecouldbesummarizedinthefollowingtwoaspects:Firstly,itinitiatesanewformofwriting,thatis,a7-character-1-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegreepoemwritteninrhymesandanarrativesongwitharelativelyfreestyle.What’smore,levelandobliquetonesarealternatelyutilized,whichmakesthecadenceofthepoemriseandfallclearly.Second,asanarrativepoem,ChangHenGeutilizesintensifiedlanguagestoshapecharactersaswellastorepresenttheplots.Inthissense,whenitwastranslateditintoEnglish,bothwritingfeaturesofthepoemandcomplicitiesofthestoryshouldbetakenintoconsideration.HenceitwouldbeofgreatsignificancetostudythetextualfeaturesoftranslationsofChangHenGesoastoobtaindifferentstylesoftranslators.AccordingtothestatisticsofLuoHuanzhenfromHongKong,“ChangHenGehasbeentranslatedintoEnglishmorethan10timesbytranslatorsathomeandabroadsofar”(Liu,1988,p.56).Sincethe1920s,HerbertA.Glies,W.J.B.Fletcher,Crammer-Byng,SoamJenningsandotherscholarsinthewesthaverespectivelytranslatedthepoem.Besides,YangHsien-yiandhisBritishwifeGladysYangastherepresentativeforSino-Westerncooperationpublishedtheirtranslationinthelate1970s.Withregardtodomesticstudies,fullversionsfromnomorethanthreetranslatorssofarcouldbereferenced,amongwhichXuYuanchong’stranslationpublishedaround1983hasbeenstudiedmost.Thefourtranslatedversionsselectedinthisthesisare:1)TheEverlastingWrong,translatedbyHerbertA.Glies,publishedinGemsofChineseLiteraturebyBernardQuaritch,1884.2)TheBalladofEndlessWoe,translatedbyW.J.B.Fletcher,publishedinGermsofChineseVersebyNabuPress,2010.3)SongofEternalSorrow,translatedbyYangHsien-yi&GladysYang,publishedinTangPoemsbyForeignLanguagesPress,2011.4)TheEverlastingRegret,translatedbyXuYuanchong,publishedin300Tang-2-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegreePoems(Chinese-English)byChinaTranslation&PublishingCorporation,2007.Thetranslationsabovewillsimplybenamedas“Glies”,“Fletcher”,“Yang”and“Xu”thereafter.Thereasonsofselectingthesefourversionscouldbestatedinthreeaspects.First,theseversionsareonesthathavebeenwidelyreadandstudiedmostsofar.Second,culturaldiversitieshavebeentakenintoconsideration.BothGliesandFletcherwerelanguagescholarsandtranslatorsfromtheGreatBritainandtheytranslatedChangHenGenearlyduringthesameperiodaroundtheearly1900s.Apartfromthat,ChinesetranslatorYangHsien-yiandhiswifeGladysYangcompletedtheirtranslationtogetherin1978,sothattheirworkcouldberegardedasthecooperationfromboththeeastandthewest.What’smore,XuYuanchong,awell-knownChinesetranslator,hasaprofoundknowledgeofChinese,theworkofwhoseisdeemedtobeclassical.Third,thestylisticdiversitiesalsohavebeenconcerned.GilestranslatedChangHenGeintoaprosaicversion.BothFletcherandXuYuanchongtookmetricalstylesforthisverse.ForYangHsien-yiandGladysYang,theywereobsessedwiththefreeverseforthepoem.Insum,bothdiversitiesinculturalbackgroundsandtranslationstylesaretobediscoveredsoastoknowdifferentstylesoftranslators.1.2ObjectiveAdmittedly,thoughstudiesaboutthetranslator’sstylehavebeenkeptundertakenformanyyears,itisstillinaninitialperiod,duringwhichpersonalizeddiscussionsratherthanprofoundandintensifiedanalyseshavebeenmade.KeFei(2002)pointedoutthatdiscussionsonthetranslator’sstylewereusuallycarriedoutintraditionalapproachesandwere,fromtimetotime,influencedbysubjectivefeelingsinsteadofbasedonobjectivestatistics,becauseitwasimpossibletoconductquantitativeexplorationstowardsaliteraryworkonalargescale.However,withtheintroductionofCorpusLinguisticsandtheutilizationofthecomputationalsoftware,ithasbecome-3-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegreeoperabletocollectdatafromlengthypassagesandithasbecomeamainstreamtosynthesizequantitativeapproachesandqualitativemethodstogethersoastoobtainamorecomprehensiveviewoflanguagefeaturesandstylesincertainworks.Consequently,byemployingcorpus-basedtranslationalapproaches,thethesisconstructsaC-EbilingualparallelcorpusandanEnglishmonolingualcomparablecorpusviaminingthetranslator’sstylefromlexical,syntacticandtextuallevels.Ononehand,translators’personalwritingfeaturesofChangHenGeshallbecomesalientthroughcomparisonsbetweentheoriginalversionandtranslatedversionsaswellasbetweentranslatedtextsandtargetlanguagetexts.Ontheotherhand,theoreticalfoundationsofrelatedstudiescouldgetfurtherimprovedandreinforced.1.3SignificanceConsideredobjectivesthisresearchshallattempttoachieve,thethesisistomakecontributionstoboththeoriesandpractice.1.3.1TheoreticalConsiderationFirstly,byconstructingcorpusandmakinguseofthecomputationalsoftware,thethesisresortstoatechnicalmethodtosolvetheoreticalproblemsintranslationandtodiscoverlinguisticfeaturesinliteraryworks.Basedonabundantmaterialsandauthenticfigures,thefindingsattainedfromthisresearchwillbefarmoreobjectiveandshalllayfoundationsforlatercorpus-basedtranslationsurveys.Secondly,theblossomofCorpusLinguisticsmakesitpossibletocarryouttranslationstudiesamongliteraryworksinquantity.Inthissense,thethesisstrivestocarryouttheresearchundertheframeworkofcorpus-basedtranslationalstylisticssoastoimprovetheresearchframeworkandbroadentheoreticalhorizonsoftranslationstudies.-4-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegreeThirdly,accordingtothestatistics,nosystematicquantitativeinvestigationonthetranslator’sstylefromtheperspectiveofclassicalChinesepoemshasbeenconductedsofar.ThethesisadoptsboththedatastatisticsandthetextualanalysisasmethodologiesandattemptstofillinthisgapviamakinganempiricalstudyofChangHenGe.1.3.2PracticalConsiderationTobeginwith,asmentionedabove,ChangHenGe,influencedbytheNewYuefuMovementinTangDynasty,isuniqueinformandcontent.Henceacomprehensivestudyonitstranslationscanhelpusappreciatehowtranslatorstacklewithculture-loadedexpressionsandrhymesinclassicalChineseaswellaslearnabouttheirtranslationorientations.SinceonethousandreadershaveonethousandHamletsintheirminds,readersshallhavedirectfeelingsaboutwhosetranslationattachingtotheirtastesbestviaacquiringdifferenttranslators’writinghabitsandlanguagecharacteristics.Additionally,appreciationsonstylesofitstranslationswillenrichtranslationalstylisticapproachesandprovidenewreferencesfortheappraisalsofTangpoemsinthefuture.What’smore,toapplyCorpusLinguisticsintominingtranslationsshallbringnewdiscoveriesontheresearchofthetranslator’sstyle.1.4OrganizationThewholethesisiscomprisedoffivechapters.ChapterOneistheintroduction,includingthebackground,theobjective,thesignificanceaswellastheoverallorganizationofthethesis.ChapterTworeviewsonfourinter-relatedparts.ItinitiallyzoomsincurrentstudiesonEnglishversionsofChangHenGe,andthenbringstraditionalstudiesonthetranslator’sstyleintofocus,especiallystatingthedefinitionofthetranslator’sstyle,thecurrentsituationonthestudyofthetranslator’sstyleathomeandabroad,aswellasthe-5-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegreestatusquoofrelatedstudiesofChangHenGe.Inaddition,itattachesgreatimportancetocorpus-basedresearchesonthetranslator’sstyle,namely,acurrentreviewandelaborationsonthetypesandconstructionsofcorpus.What’smore,italsoillustratesthetheoreticalframeworkofthethesis,thatis,corpus-basedtranslationalstylistics.ChapterThreeexhibitsthemethodologythepresentthesishasadopted,whichcombinesthequantitativeresearchwiththequalitativemethod.First,itconstructsaC-Ebilingualparallelcorpus,composedoftheChineseversionofChangHenGe,andfourcorrespondingEnglishversionsfromGlies,Fletcher,YangHsien-yi&GladysYang,aswellasfromXuYuanchong.Second,itconstructsanEnglishmonolingualcomparablecorpus,includingfourtranslatedversionsandaBritishpoemcorpusasthereference.Then,itintroducestheresearchinstrumentWordSmithTools3.0,theapplicationofwhichshallbebroughtintodetails.ChapterFourconductsanempiricalstudyofthetranslator’sstylethroughanalyzingfourtranslatedversionsofChangHenGefromlexical,syntacticandtextuallevels.Apartfromthat,italsoseekspossiblereasonsthatmayaffectdifferentstyles.ChapterFivesummarizesthemainconclusionsoftheresearchandpointsoutthelimitationsandmakesexpectationsonthefuturework.-6-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegreeChapter2LiteratureReviewChapter2investigateshowwelltranslatorsandscholarshavestudiedthetranslationsofChangHenGesofarandexplorestheinfluencesofcorpus-basedresearchesonthetranslator’sstyle.Meanwhile,thetheoreticalframeworkisalsoelaboratedhereby.2.1StudiesofTranslationsofChangHenGeThoughChangHenGehasbeentranslatedmanytimesathomeandabroad,studiesonitstranslationsarenotthatsufficient.Thefollowingpartprovidesageneralreviewoncurrentdomesticaswellasoverseasstudiesandthenpointsoutthedeficienciessoastoprovideguidanceforfuturestudies.2.1.1DomesticStudiesonTranslationsofChangHenGeEnormousacademicachievementsonthethemeandpoeticfeaturesofChangHenGehavebeenmade;however,studiesontranslationsofthepoemarefarfrombeingadequate.With“ChangHenGe&Englishtranslation”askeywordsputintoCNKI(ChineseNationalKnowledgeInfrastructure),therearetotally11recordsthatcanbelocated(0corejournals,7commonjournals,4graduatetheses),oneofwhichwaspublishedbythepresentauthor.Inaddition,anEIsourcedpaperstemmedfromthisresearchwrittenbythepresentauthoralsohasbeenindexedsofar.Thecurrentdomestictrendscanbesummarizedintofouraspects.First,fromtheperspectiveoftraditionalaesthetics,XuYuanchong’sversionhasbeenqualitativelystudiedmostbyscholarsbasedonthe“ThreeBeautyPrinciple”.(LiuYihuan,1988;DengDongliang,2010,etc.)Second,somescholarscomparedifferentversionsviareproducingpoeticimagesandpresentthebeautyofthepoemfromanabstractconcepttoaconcretefeeling.-7-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegree(DengYadan,2011,etc.)Third,somescholarsexploretheinteractivefunctionsbetweenculturesandtranslations.However,linguisticfeaturesareseldomdealtwith.(Zhangli,2011)Fourth,sincethispoemstatesalovestorybetweentheEmperorandhisimperialconcubine,somescholarsanalyzeandsynthesizeitsnarrativestylesfromanglesoffocalization,languagesandrhythms.(WangXianzhen,2008;PengNanfeng,2011)Onthewhole,thecurrentstudiesstatedaboveforrelatedfieldshavejustbegun.Ononeside,nearlyallpreviousstudiesarebasedonindividualcognitionswithqualitativeapproachesasthemainresearchmethod.Ontheotherside,whentheyselecttranslatedversionsforresearch,numbersofversionsandstylisticdiversitieshavenotbeentakenintoconsideration,nottomentionundertakinganall-inclusiveandobjectiveevaluationontranslationsofChangHenGe.2.1.2OverseasStudiesonTranslationsofChangHenGeAuthorWaley(1922)believedthatChangHenGewasendowedwithcertainpoliticalelements,butitsstretchingforceinromanticismreallybroughtforthartisticappeals.HowardLevy(1962),anAmericanhistorian,statedthatBaiJuyiaimedtoadvocatetheeternallovebetweenthetwoloversandmeanwhileimpliedthegirl’smisfortuneasaconcubine,whichstrengthenedthedramaticeffectsofthepoem.ThoughChangHenGehasbeentranslatedseveraltimesbyforeignlinguists,specificstudiesonthispoemarescanty.Onereasonmaybethatabstrusepoeticlanguagesandtheobscurityofbothhistoricalandculturalbackgroundscouldhardlybeunderstoodbywesternscholars.Nevertheless,interestintranslatingthisgloomylovehasneverbeenceased.Beforebeingtranslated,theupsanddownsbetweentheEmperorMingofTangandYangKuei-feidescribedinChangHenGehadalreadybeenfamiliarizedby-8-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegreewesterners,owingtoGeorgeCarterStent,aBritishsinologist.OnceemployedasanofficerinChineseImperialCustomhouse,GeorgekeptcollectingChineseballadsandreorganizedthemintoabookafterwards.He(1874)thenpublisheditasTheJadeChapletinTwenty-fourBeadsafterwards,inwhichheusedsixchapterstodescribethistragiclove.Inthissense,Georgeinterpretedthestoryratherthancreatedthetranslation.TheearliesttranslationofthepoemwasactuallyaccomplishedbyHerbertA.Glies,auniversallyacknowledgedBritishlanguagescholar.InhisGemsofChineseLiterature,Glies(1884)translatedthetitleas“TheEverlastingWrong”anddividedthestoryintoeightpartsaccordingtotheplot,namelyEnnui,Beauty,Revelry,Flight,Exile,Return,HomeandSpirit-land.Afterwards,Cranmer-Byng(1909)retranslatedthepoemandnameditas“TheNever-EndingWrong”.UnlikeGlieswhohadbeeninChinafornearlytwenty-sixyears,CranmernearlyknewnothingaboutChinese,sothatherecreatedthetranslationsolelybasedonGlies’swork.What’smore,W.J.B.Fletcher(2010)whooncewasemployedasaBritishdiplomatinChinatranslatedthepoemas“TheBalladofEndlessWoe”inGemsofChineseVerse.Hebravelytookthemetricalstyleforhistranslation,whichattachedtotheclassicalChinesepoeticfeatures.Amongvarioustranslations,itisuniversallyacknowledgedthatGlies’sandFletcher’shavegainedgreatpopularitiesuptillnowandhavebeenstudiedmostbyscholarsinthepastandatpresent.Tosumup,theoverseasevaluationsonthetranslationsofChangHenGearesoinsufficientandunsystematic;therefore,comprehensivestudiesareingreatneed.2.2PreviousStudiesonTranslator’sStyleTraditionally,translationactivitiesfromtimetotimeareconsideredasimitationsratherthancreativebehaviors.Translatorsaresolelyreflectionsoforiginaltexts,sothatstudiesonthetranslator’sstylehavenotbeenbroughtintofocusbeforecorpusis-9-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegreeintroduced.Thefollowingpartmakesageneralreviewonpreviousstudiesathomeandabroad.2.2.1StudiesonTranslator’sStyleAbroadWiththefocusontranslatorsgettingincreased,theidentificationsoftranslatorsdemandtobeinspectedagain.However,theconceptofthetranslator’sstyleisimpossibletobedefinedconcretely,becauseitcoverssomanycontents.AccordingtoHuKaibao(2011),broadlyspeaking,thetranslator’sstylereferstotheindividualcharacteristicsthattranslatorsindicateinchoicesoftranslations,applicationsoftranslationstrategies,etc.Inanarrowsense,thetranslator’sstyledemonstratesthelanguagepreferenceoftranslators,specialgrammaticalpatternsthatfrequentlyoccurred,etc(Hu,2011,p.109).Generally,traditionaltranslationstudiesstressedthattranslationsweretheaffiliatedproductsoftheoriginalworkandthetranslationshouldbeloyaltothestyleofthesourcetext.Inotherwords,thetranslator’sstylecouldnotindependentlyexistandhadalwaysbeenneglected.Venuti(1995)onceused“invisibility”todescribetheinferiorpositionoftranslatorsintraditionaltranslationstudies.Besides,translationswereconsideredtobejustequivalenttothesourcelanguagetext.Translatorsweredemandedtoimitateandcopythestyleoforiginalworkwithnopersonalcreationsinvolved.Obviously,therewaslittlespaceforthedevelopmentofthetranslator’sstyle.Whenitcomestothe1960s,researchesinthewestwitnessedaculturalshiftorientedbythetargetlanguage,afterwhichscholarsbegantopayattentionstothepositionoftranslators.Ithastobepointedoutthattheidentificationoftranslatorshasexperiencedachangefrom“invisibility”to“visibility”duringtheshiftfromthesource-text-orientedtothetarget-text-oriented.Peoplethenseemedtorealizethattherewasnostandardfortranslationsandtranslatorscouldinterprettheworkindifferent-10-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegreeways.Inthe1990s,studiesonthetranslator’sstylehavebecomemoreandmoresystematicandscientific.Duringthisstage,descriptiveresearchesontheconceptofthetranslator’sstylewerefocusedon.Besides,researchershaveutilizeddifferenttermstointerprettheirunderstandingsofthetranslator’sstyle.Hermans(1996)pointedoutthattherewasalwaysonethingcalled“translator’svoice”existinginthetranslationanditwasimpossibletoerasealltheimprintstranslatorshadleftduringtheprocessofthetranslation.However,Hermansjuststudiedthetranslator’sstylefromtranslationstrategiesandsocialformsanddidnotanalyzeitfromlinguisticaspects.Schiavi(1996)alsocontributedhisunderstandingsoftranslator’svoiceandcameupwiththeconceptof“impliedtranslator”.Thetranslator’sstyle,asatranslationterm,wasformallyputforwardbyMonaBaker.Baker(2000)definedthat“translator’sstylereferstoakindofthumbprintthatisexpressedinarangeoflinguisticaswellasnonlinguisticfeaturesanditembodiesatranslator’suniqueusesoflanguages,characteristicapplicationsoftranslationcriteria,aswellasindividualprofilesoflinguistichabitsduringtranslating.”(p.245).Accordingtoherconcept,thetranslator’sstyleindicatesunconsciousstylisticfeaturesorunobviouslanguagehabits.“Theso-calledlanguagehabitsmightinvolveselectionsoftranslatedtextsandtranslationstrategies,personallanguagepreferencesaswellasexpressionsthatfrequentlyoccur.”(Baker,2000,p.245).Insum,westernstudiesonthetranslator’sstyleexploredseveralstageswhichfirstlybrokethefetteroftraditionaltranslationframeworkandthenshiftedtobeorientedbythetargetlanguage.Afterwards,translatorsbecamevisibleunlikepreviousinvisibleidentifications.Apartfromthat,linguistsinmoderntimesbegantofocusonthedescriptiveanalysisofthisconcept.FromHermans’s“translator’svoice”to-11-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegreeSchiavi’s“impliedtranslator”,scholarsinterpreteditindifferentways.However,itdidnotformallyestablisharelativelyauthorizednotionuntilMonaBakecameupwiththeconceptofthetranslator’sstyle.Bakersincethenhasstartedtobringstudiesofthetranslator’sstylefrompreviousconsciouslyinterferencetostudiesofunconsciousbehaviors.Thediscussionsofthetranslator’sstyleinthisthesisshallmakereferencetoBaker’sinterpretation.2.2.2StudiesonTranslator’sStyleinChinaStudiesonthetranslator’sstyleinChinaarelargelyconductedafter2000whichisratherlatecomparedwiththatinthewest.Achievementsthathavebeenmadesofararemainlycommentsonpreviousstudiesaswellasdiscussionsontheconceptofthetranslator’sstyle.Incurrentdomestictranslationstudies,ithasbeenwidelyacknowledgedthatBaker’s“translator’sstyle”isusuallydefinedas“译者文体/译者的文体”inChineseandHermans’s“translator’svoice”istermedas“译者声音/译者的声音”(Dong,2010,p.37).Thesetwotermsbothconcentrateontheidentificationsoftranslatorsduringtheprocessofthetranslation.Inthisthesis,thepresentauthorshallusethe“translator’sstyle(译者文体)”insteadofthe“translator’svoice(译者声音)”andreasonsaredemonstratedasfollows.Firstly,fromtheperspectiveoflinguists,whatstyleinvolvesis“whytranslatorsselectparticulargrammaticalrulestoexpressthemselves”(Leech&Short,2001,p.13).Besides,incritics’opinions,stylerefersto“howaestheticeffectsareproducedvialanguages”(p.13).Inthissense,researchesonstyleissuesinbothlinguists’andcritics’eyesallstemfromtheformoflinguistics.Second,fortheword“voice”,itiscreatedbecausethe“informationoforiginaltextcannotbetotallyequivalenttothetargetlanguagewithouttheassistanceofthe-12-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegreetranslator’svoice”(Feng,2003,p.30).Tosomeextent,translator’svoicecanalsoindicatetranslator’sstyle.However,thetranslator’svoicemightcauseillusionsforaveragereaders,whoshalldeemthatthevoicemainlyconcernsthenarrativeviewoftranslators,expressionsaswellastheirthinkingpatterns.Inessence,thescopeofthetranslator’sstyleisnotlimitedtotheabovecontentsbutmeanwhilecoversthelinguisticfeaturesintermsoflexiconsandsyntax,translationstrategiesaswellasotheraspects.Lastbutnotleast,thepresentresearchmainlyfocusesonthelanguagepreferenceoftranslatorsandlinguisticphenomenathatfrequentlyoccurredintranslations,sothat“translator’sstyle”wouldbeclosertotheresearchgoalthisthesisstrivestoachieve.Consideringtheabovereasons,thepresentauthordefinesthetitleofthethesisas“Corpus-basedResearchonTranslator’sStyleofChangHenGe”.2.3Corpus-basedResearchesonTranslator’sStyleCorpusoriginallyreferstobodyinLatin.BothcorporaandcorpusesareEnglishpluralsofcorpus.Inthefieldoflinguistics,corpusesrefertoasetofstructuredtexts,whichweremanuallyconstructedinearlyyearsbuthavebeenlargelyprocessedautomaticallyincurrentdays.Withthedevelopmentofcomputationaltechniques,researchesbasedoncorpushavewitnessedblossomsincontrastivelinguistics,secondlanguageacquisition,teachingmethods,etc.Besides,theupsurgeofcorpushaslargelybroadenedtheresearchviewofdescriptivelinguisticsandappliedlinguistics,andhasprovidednewresearchmethodsfortranslationstudies.Thefollowingpartshallgiveageneralreviewoncorpus-basedresearchesontranslationsinvolvingconceptsofcorpustranslationstudies,corpus-basedexplorationsonthetranslator’sstyleaswellasabriefintroductiontocorpus-basedtranslationalstylisticswhichisadoptedasthetheoreticalframeworkinthepresentthesis.-13-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegree2.3.1ReviewonCorpus-basedTranslationStudiesKenney(1998)oncedefinedcorpusasthe“bodyofwrittentextsortranscribedspeechesthatcouldbeprocessedforlinguisticanalyses”(p.50).Sincethetranslationstudyattachesmuchimportancetocomparisonsamonglanguagesaswellastexts,itstheoriesarelargelyborrowedfromlinguisticsaswellasfromdescriptivemethodologies.Baker(1996)firstlycameupwiththeconceptof“corpus-basedtranslationstudies”(p.175).Afterwards,Tymoczko(1998)definedtranslationstudiesbasedoncorpusascorpustranslationstudies(CTS).Besides,Laviosa(1998)putforwardthat“corpus-basedapproacheswouldserveasanewparadigmintranslationstudies”(p.474).WangKefei(2012)attemptedtodefinerelatedresearchesascorpus-basedtranslationstudiesandthoughtthatwiththeoreticalreferencesfromlinguisticsandtranslations,corpus-basedtranslationstudieswouldsynthesizethebilingualparallelmodeandthemonolingualcomparablemodeandexploredescriptiveexplanationsontranslationsinaccordancewitheitherdiachronicorsynchronicorder(Wang,2012,p.129).Generallyspeaking,corpus-basedtranslationstudieslargelydependonbilingualcorpusesincludingtranslationalcorpus,parallelcorpusaswellascomparablecorpus,which,inessence,stemfromDescriptiveTranslationStudiesandCorpusLinguistics.MonaBaker(1993)wasthefirsttobringcorpusintotranslationstudiesandshe(2000)initiativelyexploredthetranslator’sstylewiththecorpusapproachanddeepenedtheanalysisinType/TokenRatio,AverageSentenceLengthandotherlexicalfeaturesinTowardsaMethodologyforInvestigatingtheStyleofaLiteraryTranslator.Venuti(1992)pointedoutthatcorpus-basedapproacheswereversatileresearchinstrumentsfortranslationstudies.Olohan(2004)describedcorpus-basedapproachesasthefutureofempiricaltranslationstudies.What’smore,languagescholarslikeEbeling(1998)andMaia(1998)conductedresearchesonsimilaritiesanddifferencesontranslatedtextsvia-14-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegreecorpus.Barlow(2000)andZanettin(2003)consideredcorpusasresourcesforassistingtranslationactivitiesandsearchingterms.Ingeneral,overseasstudiestendtodependoncorpusforempiricalresearchesandtostrengthenrelatedtheoreticalsupports.Bycontrast,corpus-basedtranslationstudiesinChinastartedratherlate.ZhangLvandHuDongping(2011)onceconductedasurveyofrelateddomesticstudies.Accordingtotheirdata,therewereroughly66papersgotpublishedindomesticjournalsfrom1999to2010andresearcheswerestillongoing.Theyconcludedthatcurrentcorpus-basedstudiesontranslationinChinacoveredsevenaspects,namely,literaturereviews,constructionandapplicationsofcorpus,teachingmethods,studiesonstyleoftranslators,etc.Thepicturebelowisextractedfromtheirstatisticstoshowthedistributionofcurrentachievementsbasedoncorpus.Figure2-1DomesticReviewsonCorpus-basedResearchesFromFigure2-1,itcanexplicitlybeseenthatcurrentdomesticstudiesconcentrateontheconstructionofcorpus,universalfeaturesoftranslationaswellasapplicationsoftranslationbasedoncorpus.Apartfromthat,tocombinestyleswithcorpus-basedtranslationstudiesisratherinadequateandempiricalstudiesonthetranslator’sstyleleavegreatpotentialsforfurtherstudies.-15-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegree2.3.2StatusQuoofCorpus-basedStudiesonTranslator’sStyleAsmentionedabove,Prof.MonaBakerwasthefirstscholartoanalyzethetranslator’sstyleviatheutilizationofcorpustechniques.SheconductedcomparisonsbetweenstylesofPeterBushandPeterClark,twoBritishtranslators,withTranslationalEnglishCorpus(TEC)astheresearchplatform.She(2000)concludedthat“howevermethodologicallydifficult,itispossibletoidentifypatternsofchoicewhichtogetherformaparticularthumb-printorstyleofanindividualliterarytranslator”(p.260).ZhangMeifang(2002)summarizedthattheresearchmadebyBakerattemptedtoanswerfollowingquestions:a.whetheraliterarytranslatorwillindicatehisorherindividualstylesintranslationwork?b.howtoidentifythoseparticularindividualimprints?c.whetheraliterarytranslatorshallremainacohesivestyleonchoicesoflexicons,sentencepatternsaswellaspunctuations?d.whetherstyleoftranslatorswillbeinfluencedbysourcetextsorothersocialfactors?f.howtointerpretthechoiceoftranslatorsfromtheperspectivesofculturalbackgrounds,thinkingpatternsorothers?Besides,MaeveOlohan(2003)alsotookTECtostudystylesoftwoBritishtranslatorsPeterBushandDorothyS.Blair.Shefoundthatthetwotranslatorsexploreddistinctionsinusingomissionformsandcompleteformsforauxiliaryverbsandlinkverbs,likeI’ve(Ihave),they’ve(theyhave),won’t(willnot),can’t(cannot),etc.Besides,Bosseaux(2001)studiedfrequenciesofdemonstrativepronounsusedinTheWaves’twoFrenchtranslationswiththeaidofCorpusLinguistics.MengJi(2009)fromUniversityCollegeLondon(UCL)onceconstructedabilingualSpanish-ChineseparallelcorpusofDonQuixoteandcomparedthedifferencesofitstwotranslationsfromtheperspectiveoffour-characteridioms.Inrecentyears,domesticcorpus-basedstudiesonthetranslator’sstylehavedevelopedgradually.ZhangMeifang’sUsingCorpusforInvestigatingtheStyleofa-16-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegreeLiteraryTranslator,asmentionedabove,madeaprofoundintroductionandcommentsonBaker’snewresearchmethod.LiaoQiyi(2000)pointedoutthattranslationalcorpuscaneffectivelystudyparticularlanguagehabits,sentencepatternsaswellasothergrammaticalfeaturesoftranslators.KeFei(2002)summarizedthatpreviousstudiesontranslationsdidnotinvolvethatmanyissuesaboutstylesandmostoftheresearcheswereconductedbasedonsubjectivefeelings.However,corpustechniquesmadeitpossibletocarryoutquantitativeexplorationsonthetranslator’sstyleonalargescale.HuangLibo(2009)attemptedtobuildaframeworkofcorpus-basedtranslationalstylisticsbasedonareviewonpreviouscorpustranslationstudies.WangLinlin(2012)studiedtwotranslationsofTheOldManandSeafromtheperspectiveofAverageSentenceLength,Type/TokenRatio,etc.LiuZequan(2010)comparedthreetranslationsofADreaminRedMentionsviathestudyofreportedverbsbasedonabilingualC-Ecorpusofthenovelandgottoknowdifferentstylesoftranslators.Tosumup,asfarasitisconcerned,studiesofthetranslator’sstylebasedoncorpushavejuststarted.Morecomplicatedandsystematiccorpus-basedresearchesstillremainuntouched.HuKaibao(2011)pointedoutthat“relatedstudiescouldbedonefromlexicons,syntax,aswellasthesemanticcollocationsandevendifferenttranslationstrategiestakenbytranslatorscouldbefiguredout”(pp.115-116).2.3.3StudiesonCorpus-basedTranslationalStylisticsWiththecorpusapproachwidelyusedintranslationandstylisticstudies,someachievementsfromcorpusstylisticshascaughtattentionsofscholars(Semino&Short,2004;Wynne,2005;Hoover,2007).However,asystematictheoreticalframeworkconcerningvariousstyleissuesintranslationhasnotbeenestablished.WangKefei(2012)attemptedtoconstructaframeworknamedascorpus-basedtranslationalstylisticswhichaimedtocombineresearchesfromcorpusstylistics,translation-17-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegreeuniversalsaswellasthetranslator’sstyletogethersoastobroadenresearchviewsonrelatedexplorations(Wang,2012,p.128).Accordingtohisframework,withregardstoresearchcontents,thecorpus-basedtranslationalstylisticsgenerallyinvolvestwoareas,namely,themonolingualcomparablemode(单语语内类比)andthebilingualparallelmode(双语语际对比).Forthebilingualparallelmode,itmainlyreflectshowthesourcelanguagetexthasinfluencedtranslations;forthemonolingualcomparablemode,itstrivestoconductcomparisonsbetweentranslatedlanguageswiththelocalworkfromthetargetlanguage.What’smore,fordescriptiveparameters(描写参数),therearelinguisticparameters(语言形式参数)andnarrativeparameters(文学叙事参数)(Wang,2012,p.129).Indetail,thelinguisticparametersareusedtoexplorelexicalvariations,lexicaldensities,themes,uniquewordsaswellasotherlinguisticfeaturesandusuallyincludetheaveragesentencelength,thestandarddeviationofsentencelength,thetype/tokenratio,thestandardizedtype/tokenratio,thelexicaldensity,keywords,etc.MostofthesedatacouldbecalculatedbyWordSmithTools.Ithasbeenbroadlyacknowledgedthatlinguisticparametersperformsignificantrolesinquantitativeresearchesofthetranslator’sstyle.Fornarrativeparameters,itsapplicationsarewithinlimitationswhichareusuallyadoptedbynovelstudies.Forillustration,influencesuponnarrativestructuresmadebydifferentlexicalchoicesoftranslatorsbelongtothistype.Insum,corpus-basedtranslationalstylisticsattemptstoregardtranslatedtextsasindependentsubjectsoftranslationstudiesaswellastodiscoverindividualimprintsoftranslatorsduringtheprocessofthetranslation.Thepresentresearchisconductedunderthetheoreticalfoundationmentionedabove.Consideringtheresearchcontents,aC-EbilingualparallelcorpusandanEnglishmonolingualcomparablecorpusareconstructed.Thebilingualcorpusinvolvesthe-18-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegreeoriginaltextandfourtranslationsofthepoem,whichmakesitpossibletoseehowtranslatorsareaffectedbythesourcelanguagetext.Thisisthebilingualparallelmode.TheEnglishmonolingualcorpusiscomprisedbyfourEnglishtranslationsandaBritishPoeticCorpus(BPC).TheBPCinvolves125Britishpoemsanddetailedinformationwillbeintroducedinthenextchapter.Withtranslatedtextsandmaterialsfromthetargetlanguage,themonolingualcomparablemodecanthusbemade.AsChangHenGeisaTangpoem,unlikenovels,therearefewnarrativefeaturesinthetext.Inthissense,thedescriptiveparametersusedinthisthesisarelinguisticparameters.Researchesshallbeelaboratedfromlexical,syntacticandtextuallevelswiththecombinationofbothqualitativeandquantitativemethods.-19-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegreeChapter3ResearchMethodologyDongNa(2010)believedthatanycorpus-basedresearchcouldnotbecarriedoutwithouttwobasicelements:oneisthatthecorpusshouldberepresentativeandhasbeentaggedaswellasconstructedaccordingtostrictrules;theotheristhetoolsandtechniquesemployedforprocessingthecorpora.Withoutthosetwobasicelements,itcannotbecalledacorpus-basedapproach.Chapter3describestheresearchmethodsadoptedinthisthesis,includingcorpusconstructions,theresearchtoolsemployedandintroducestextualanalysis,anequallyimportantmethod.3.1CorpusConstructionCorpusistheselectionandcollectionoflanguagematerialsinaccordancewithcertainresearchgoals.Thematerialsarechosenfortheprobabilitysamplingandareconvertedintoelectronictextsforcomputationalaccounting.Afterdigitalized,thecorpuscannotdirectlyputintoapplication.Aseriesofprocessingissuperessentialforthefinalresults.Firstcomesthepre-processingstage,itinvolvestheselectionofmaterialsandevaluationofthewholeresearch.AllthetextsaretobereservedinTXTform.Second,alignmentishighlydemandedbytheunitofsentences.Besides,otherover-elaborateprocessingincludecuttinglexicons,taggingpartofspeech,tokenization,etc.Lastbutnotleast,puttheprocessedtextsintoapplication,includingindex,statisticsofdata,analysis,etc.Thetypesofcorpuscangenerallybedividedintomonolingualcorpus,bilingualcorpusandmultilingualcorpusaccordingtothedivisionoflanguages.Theymaybefurtherdividedintoparallelcorpusandcomparablecorpus.StigJohansson(1998)deemedthatanycomparablecorpuscouldbecalledaparallelone.However,Mona-20-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegreeBaker(1995)advocatedthataparallelcorpusshouldbecomprisedbythelanguagetextAanditstranslatedtextsB.WangKefei(2004)pointedoutthatasourcelanguagetextanditscorrespondingtargetlanguagetextscontributedtoabilingualparallelcorpus.Thepresentresearchisinclinedtothelastpointofview.Justasthetermsuggests,whatacomparablecorpuscollectsshouldbecomparativeanditsdesignandstructurecanhelpcorpusachievecomparisonsincertainaspects.Asforthecomparablecorpus,HuKaibao(2011)definedthatamonolingualcomparablecorpuswascomposedbytheoriginaltextofcertainlanguageandtranslatedtextsinthislanguage.Baker(1995)concludedthatamonolingualcomparablecorpuswashelpfulindescribingspecificorrepeatedlyoccurredphenomenaaswellasrevealinggeneralfeaturesandessentialsoftranslations(p.235).Undoubtedly,theconstructionofcorpusistoservecertaingoals.Thisresearchaimstoinvestigatethetranslator’sstyleofChangHenGewiththeapplicationoftechniquesfromCorpusLinguistics.Translatorsusuallyperformasinterpreters,whonotonlytransformthelanguagesbutalsodisseminatedifferentcultures.Tosomeextent,theprocessoftheircreationsmaybeinfluencedbyboththesourceandthetargetlanguagesaswellasbycorrespondingcultures.Consideringtheabovereasons,aChinese-EnglishbilingualparallelcorpusandanEnglishmonolingualcomparablecorpusaretobebuiltinthisresearch,whichmakeitpossibletocomparesimilaritiesanddifferencesamongtranslatedversionsaswellastoreflectanypossibleinfluentialfactor.Inthepresentthesis,theoriginalEnglishcorpususedasreferenceinmonolingualcomparablecorporaisconstructedbythepresentauthorinsteadofdownloadingexistedcorpuslikeBritishNationalCorpus(BNC)fromthewebsite.Tworeasonsaretypicallytakenintoaccounts.OneisthatreferencecorpuslikeBNCconsistsof90millionwordsoftextsanditsmaterialsrangefromliterarynovels,university-21-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegreetextbooks,magazines,governmentdocumentsaswellasadvertisementsandjunkmails.Ifmixedanddisorderedcontentsgetinvolved,suchkindofcorpusisnotsuitableforthepresentresearchwhichpurelyfocusesonthetranslationsofapoem.Theotherreasonisthatthecorpusconstructedforthisresearchisadiachroniconewhichrangesfromthe19thtothe20thcenturies.Inordertobetterthecomparisonsandpickupmorerepresentativematerials,itisnecessarytoconstructacorpussolelyconsistingofmodernBritishpoemswhichweregenerallycomposedafterthefirstIndustrialRevolution.Consideringtheabovefactors,135Britishpoemsfrom25renownedBritishpoetsfromthe18thtothe20thcenturiesarecarefullyselected,whichcomprisethecurrentBritishPoeticCorpus.ThepoetsinvolvedincludeT.S.Eliot,W.H.Auden,RobertLowell,JamesJoyce,RobertFrost,JohnMilton,JohnKeats,WilliamWordsworth,WilliamButlerYeats,RobertBrowning,WilliamBlake,Rossetti,JaneTaylor,CharlesKingsley,AfredLordTennyson,GeorgeGordonByron,PercyByssheShelleyetc.Theconstructionofthosetwocorpusestypicallyfollowsfourstages.FirstbeginswiththecollectionandselectionoftranslatedversionsofChangHenGe.Secondstepisthepre-processingstage.Sometextsarenotavailableonthewebsite,soitdemandsmanuallyinputbythepresentauthor.AllthetextsaretobeconvertedintodigitalversionsandsavedinTXTform.ThegeneralconstructionofcorpusisdisplayedinTable3-1anddetailsofeachversionarelistedinTable3-2.-22-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegreeTable3-1ConstructionofCorpusOriginalChineseVersionChinese-EnglishYangHsien-yi’sversionBilingualXuYuanchong’sversionEnglishMonolingualParallelCorpusGlies’sversionComparableCorpusFletcher’sversionBritishPoeticCorpusTable3-2DetailInformationofEachVersionChineseversionChenCaihou,TheCollectionofTangPoems,HaichaoPress,2010.Glies’sversionChinesePoetryinEnglishVerse,BernardQuaritch,1898.Fletcher’sGemsofChineseverse,NabuPress,2010.versionXuYuanchong’s300TangPoems(Chinese-English),ChinaTranslation&versionPublishingCorporation,2007.YangHsien-yi’sTangPoems,ForeignLanguagesPress,2011.versionBritishpoemshttp://www.lit.kobe-u.ac.jp/~hishika/20c_poet.htm#PoetPagesNext,itcomestheprocessingstage,includingaligningaswellastrimmingtheChineseversionandEnglishversions,cuttingthelexiconsoftheChinesetext,andtaggingthepartsofspeechfortranslatedtexts,etc.ThefinalstepistoelicitstatisticswiththeaidofWordSmithTools.Sincethepresentpaperaimstoconducttheresearch-23-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegreefromthreelevels,theresearchframeisexhibitedinTable3-3.Table3-3ResearchFrameofPresentThesisLevelVariableLexiconLexicalVariation,LexicalDensity,LexicalFrequency,SpecificTermsSyntaxAverageSentenceLengthSpecialSentencePatternsTextTextCoherenceRhythmandRhymeThetranslator’sstylebasedoncorpusresearchtypicallycanberevealedbythestatisticsandfrequenciesofcertainlinguisticfeaturesthatfrequentlyoccur.Normally,commonlanguagefeaturesratherthanindividualphenomenaareunderexploration.However,itisofgreatsignificancetoconnectboththecommonandindividualcharacteristicsaswellaswithotherlanguagefeaturesforobservation.Thereasonwhyareferencecorpusisnecessaryfortheresearchisthatwhencomparedwiththenormaldistributionofnativelanguages,itwouldbeeasiertoknowthestyleofeachtranslatorviacomparingthedeviationfromthenorm.Explorationsonlexicallevelareconductedfromperspectivesoflexicalvariation,lexicaldensity,andlexicalfrequencyaswellasspecificterms.TakeType/TokenRatio(TTR)forillustration,itmainlyinvestigatesthelexicalrangesintranslations.TheTTRkeepsapositiverelationwiththelexicalvariation.Theresearchonthesyntaxisorientedbythesyntaxcategory,whichisregardedastheweldinglayerbetweentextsandlexicons.Comparedwiththetextuallevel,itcanbedeemedasamini-textform.Ifcomparedwiththelexicallevel,itisanorganiccombinationofwordsandphrases.-24-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegreeEvidently,differenttranslatorsutilizedissimilarsentencepatterns,sothatitisoperabletoconductaninvestigationonthetranslator’sstylefromsyntacticaspects.Itisuniversallyagreedthatawholetextisconstructedbysentences,butitcannotbenamedasatextwithoutcoherenceandcohesions(Zhu,2001,p.44).Inthissense,sentencesintranslationshighlydependonconjunctionsaswellasothercohesions.Inthisresearch,investigationsontextuallevel,toalargedegree,focusonlogicalcohesions,includingstatisticsofconjunctionsandsomespecificpunctuation.What’smore,asChangHenGeisapoetictextwithrhymesandrhythms,itwouldbenecessarytoaddresearchesonrhythmsandrhymesoffourtranslationsintotextualobservationssoastogetamorecomprehensiveviewoftheirstyles.3.2ResearchInstrumentTheresearchinstrumentemployedinthisthesisisWordSmithTools,whichcanhelpwithtrimming,cutting,aligningaswellascanstoreandinterpretmassivedata.WordSmithToolsisanintegratedsuiteofprogramsforobservinghowwordsbehaveintexts,thefunctionsofwhichcontainWordList,ConcordandKeyWords.TheWordListToolsletyouseealistofallthewordsorword-clustersinatext,whichispresentedinorderoffrequencies.Concord,knownastheconcordancer,presentscollocationsofanywordorphraseincontextandshallletyouseewhatcompanyitkeeps.TheKeyWordsfunctionisusedtolocateoridentifykeywordsinthetext.Itcompareswordsinthegiventextwithareferencecorpus.Anywordthatstandsoutinfrequenciesisconcernedas“key”.Becausethislexicalsoftwareisnotfreecurrently,theWordSmithToolsappliedinthisresearchissponsoredbyMikeScott,theinitiatorandtheauthorofWordSmithfromAstonUniversity.Table3-4exhibitsdetailedinformationofthissoftware:-25-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegreeTable3-4InformationofWordSmithToolsProductNameProductVersionLegalCopyrightWordSmithTools3.0LexicalAnalysisSoftwareLtd.TheaboveresearchmethodassistedbyWordSmithTools,inessence,isaquantitativeapproach.However,itmaybeinsufficienttoanalyzethetranslator’sstylesolelyfromminingtextualmethod.Inmostcases,ifcombinedwithqualitativeanalysis,morecomprehensiveobservationsmightbeobtained.3.3TextualAnalysisYangHuizhong(2002)summarizedthatthebasicruletofollowwouldbethatcorpus-basedanalysisshouldbeconductedunderthegroundsofbothquantitativeandqualitativestudies.Asmentionedabove,solelyanalysisbasedonstatisticsiswithinlimitations,becausethereisrarelyjustonewaytointerpretatext.Inthissense,examplesfromthegiventextsarefarmorenecessarytosupportclaims.“Textualanalysisisnotwritinghowyoufeelaboutatext’stopic,andit’snotwritingwhetheryouagreeordisagreewiththeargumentpresented.”(http://www.wright.edu/academics/writingctr/resources/textualanalysis.html)Textsoftenexistaspartofongoingplotsorasaresponsetoaparticularevents.Whencarryingouttheanalysis,itisimportanttokeepinmindhowthoseplotsinfluencetheunderstandingofintendedaudiences.Inthissense,comparedwithpurelyquantitativeinvestigations,qualitativestudiesindicatemorepersonalcognitionsintheprocessofthetranslation.Thoughsubjective,itisofgreatsignificanceforresearchesofliterarytranslations.Inthisresearch,corpus-basedtextualanalysisismainlyappliedtofacilitatethedatainterpretationsinspecifiedterms,syntaxpatterns,andmetricalformats,etc.-26-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegreeChapter4DataAnalysisandDiscussionAsmentionedinChapter3,abilingualparallelcorpusandamonolingualcomparablecorpushavebeenestablished.Theresearchesbasedondataaswellasontextualanalysisinthischapterattempttoexplorelanguagehabitsoftranslators,linguisticphenomenathatoccurfrequentlyaswellastofindoutpossiblereasonsaccountingfortheirdistinctivestyles.4.1Translator’sStylefromThreeLevelsSincetheresearchaimstodiscoverthelinguisticfeaturesoftranslators,thepresentauthordrawsontheexperiencefromLeechandShort.TheycameupwithananalysismodelforstylisticsstudiesinStyleinFiction:ALinguisticIntroductiontoEnglishFictionalProsewhichinvolveslexicalcategories,grammaticalcategories,figuresofspeechaswellascontextsandcohesions(Leech&Short,2001,pp.75-80).Thepresentstudyofthetranslator’sstyleattemptstozoomincertainlinguisticphenomena,sothatsomeotheraspectsarenotthatimportant.Besides,consideringthefeaturesofChangHenGe,thediscussionsbasedoncorpusanalysiswillbeelaboratedfromthreeaspects,thatis,lexicons,syntax,andtexts.4.1.1Translator’sStyleManifestedatLexicalLevelBecauselexiconsareconsideredasthebasicunittoconstituteatext,studiesinthisfieldareofgreatsignificanceformanifestingthetranslator’sstyle.ThefollowingpartmakesacomprehensivestudyoflexiconsintranslationsofChangHenGeandtheresearchesarecarriedoutfromthelexicalvariation,thelexicaldensity,thelexicalfrequencyaswellassomespecificterms.4.1.1.1FeaturesReflectedinLexicalVariationGenerallyspeaking,the“lexicalvariationismainlyreflectedbytheType/Token-27-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegreeRatio(TTR),whichexploresthecategoryrangeinthegiventext”(Hu,2011,p.94).“TypereferstothenumberofalldifferentwordformsandTokenreferstoallwordformsinthecorpus”(Hu,2011,p.94).“TheTTRandlexicalvariationskeepapositiverelationship”(Wang,2012,p.81).Inotherwords,thehighertheratiois,thehigherthelexicalvariationofthetextwillbe.Besides,tosomedegree,theTTRalsosuggestshowmuchthetranslatorhasbeenaffectedbythesourcelanguage,thatis,thelowertheratiois,thecloserthetranslatoristothelanguagehabitsofEnglishspeakers.However,withtimegoingby,thetokenmightgetincreasedwhilethetypeexploresslightchanges.Asaresult,theTTRmightgetchanged.WordSmithToolsprovidesStandardizedType/TokenRatio(STTR),whichregards1000tokensasthebasiccalculatingunitandmakesitpossibletocomparedifferentcorpusatthesamelevel.Generally,ithasbeenwidelyagreedtouseSTTRformeasuringthelexicalvariationincurrentCorpusLinguistics.Typesin1000TokensSTTR100%(1)Token/1000ThecomparisonsofSTTRamongfourEnglishversionsarepresentedinTable4-1,withtheBPCtakenasthereferencecorpus.Table4-1StatisticsofStandardizedType/TokenRatioItemYangXuGliesFletcherBPCTokens1,1951,1641,4181,34224,247Types5415526485994,832STTR47.549.951.649.147.4-28-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegreeFigure4-1ScaleforStandardizedType/TokenRatioTable4-1displaysthescaleoffourEnglishversionsandFigure4-1altersthesefiguresintochartsforbettercomparisons.Table4-1andFigure4-1reflect:(1)ThelexicalvariationsoffourtranslatedtextsareallhigherthanthatofBPC.Asmentionedabove,BPCisacorpuscomposedby125Britishpoems.Theparametersoftranslatedlanguagesperformhigherthanthatoftargetlanguages.Inthissense,translationsofChangHenGehaveexploredmuchmoredifferentlanguagestostateimagesofaclassicalChinesepoem.(2)Amongfourversions,Glies’sSTTRranksthefirst,whichindicatesthathehasamuchwiderrangeofwordchoicesthantheothertranslators.Accordingtothestatistics,therearetotally1,418wordsand648wordformsinGlies’stranslation,whichsuggestthatGliesmaydelivermoreinformation.Apartfromthat,STTRcanalsoreflecthowcloseatranslationistothelanguagehabitsofnativespeakersinthetargetlanguage.ThoughGliesisaBritishsinologist,hisSTTRexplicitlyshowsadistancetothatofBPC,whichrevealsthathisutilizationoflexiconsdoesnotattachtohisnativespeakers.Besides,Gliesmaytranslatethepoemviatheword-by-wordtranslation,so-29-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegreethatsomerarelyusedlexiconsappearinhisversion,which,bycontrast,arenotcommonlyusedbyBritishpeople.(3)XuYuanchong’slexicalvariationalsodisplaysahighposition.Itisnoticedthathisworkhasthelowesttokens(1164tokens)andsuchahighSTTR(49.9)provesthatheisusedtoenrichingwordformssoastouselesswordstobettertranslatethepoemratherthanenlargingthelengthofthetranslation(4)Incomparison,Yang’sandFletcher’slexicalrangesgetnarroweddown,buttheirdataareclosertothatofBPC.Itcanbeseenthattheirwordchoicesstayalongsidewiththelanguagehabitofnativespeakers.BelowareseveralsentencesextractedfromtheC-Ebilingualcorpustofurtherdemonstratethedifferencesoffourtranslationswithregardtolexicalvariations.汉皇重色思倾国,Glies:HisImperialMajesty,aslavetobeauty,longedfora“subvertertoempires;”Fletcher:TheLordofHanlovedbeauty,inlove’sdesirehepined.Yang:Appreciatingfemininecharms,theHanemperorsoughtagreatbeauty.御宇多年求不得。Glies:Foryearshehadsoughtinvaintosecuresuchtreasureforhispalace…Fletcher:Foryearswithinhispalace,suchlovehecouldnotfind.Yang:Throughouthisempirehesearchedformanyyearswithoutsuccess.Xu:Thebeauty-lovingmonarchlongedyearafteryeartofindabeautifulladywithoutpeer.(Combinedtranslation)ThisisthefirstlinefromChangHenGe.“重色”indicateswomanizersand“倾国”referstoanystunningbeautyinChinesecultures.Glies’s“aslavetobeauty”and“asubvertertobeauty”areendowedwithstrongemotionsandasenseofsatirecanbefeltonthemonarch.However,theword“subverter”istakentotranslate“倾”,indicating-30-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegreethatGliesfocusesmoreontheliteralmeaningandhisunderstandingisnotthatconcisecomparedwithothers.Besides,Yang’s“appreciatingfemininecharms”isthoughttobewithleastsubjectiveemotions.Forthesecondhalf,alltheotherthreetranslations,exceptXuYuanchong,alluse“foryears”,“soughtinvain”,“couldnotfind”and“withoutsuccess”tomatch“多年”and“求不得”.Bycontrast,Xucombinesthemeaningofthetwosentencesandtranslatesthemintoone,inwhich“yearafteryear”and“withoutpeer”covermostofthecontents.“yearafteryear”notonlyrevealsthetimespanthemonarchhasspentonseekingthebeautyconcerningthetimeissue,butalsoindicatesthathehasnotfoundoneyetintermsofthespatialscale.Besides,“withoutpeer”showsthatthebeautyhedesiresshouldbeincomparablycharming.Inthissense,what“倾国”,“御宇”and“求不得”expresshaveallbeencoveredinhistranslation.遂令天下父母心，Glies:Forthusitcameaboutthatfathersandmothersthroughthelengthandbreadthoftheempire.Fletcher:UntilthroughouttheEmpire,allparentshailedwithjoy.Yang:OmitXu:tothegriefofthefathersandmotherswho’drathergivebirth.不重生男重生女。Glies:Rejoicednolongeroverthebirthofsons,butoverthebirthofdaughtersFletcher:Thebirthofsomefairmaiden;andwantednotaboy.Yang:Allparentswishedfordaughtersinsteadofsons!Xu:toafairmaidenthananysononearth.InconventionalChineseculture,sonsusuallyenjoyhonorablepositionscomparedwithdaughters,becauseonlysonscanbringtheglorytoonefamily.However,since-31-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegreeConcubineYangwasfavoredgenerouslybytheemperor,allherrelativeshavegainedhighsocialpositionsandgreatwealthbecauseofher,whichresultsintherevolutionontraditionalstereotypestowardssonsanddaughters.“天下”isaspecialconceptfornationsinEasternAsianwhichinterpretitthesameas“普天之下”.Itmeetsnolimitationinbothgeographicalandspatialscopes.Inthissense,regionscoveredby“天下”arenotlimitedtothesovereignoftheempire,whichmaybedifficultforwesternerstounderstand.Inthiscase,GliesandFletcherliterallytranslateitas“thelengthandbreadthoftheempire”and“throughouttheempire”.Particularly,Glies’sinterpretationisnotthatidiomaticbutitsvividdescriptionswouldberathereasiertobeacceptedbywesternreaders.Xu’s“onearth”,bycontrast,fitsthescopebestdiscussedabove.Comparedwithothers,thoughYangomitsthefirsthalfanddirectlytranslatesthesecondsentence,hisexpressionsareclearandrelativelysimpletobeunderstoodfortargetreaders.一别音容两茫茫。Glies:Sayinghowsincetheypartedshehasmissedhisformandvoice.Fletcher:“myvoice,”shesaid,“sinceparting,myfacemysorrowswear.”Yang:Sincetheirpartingshehadnotheardhisvoicenorseenhisface.Xu:theyknewnothingofeachotheraftertheyparted.Inthisexample,“音容”notonlyreferstoone’svoiceandfacebutalsostandsforalltheinformationrelatedtothatperson.“音容两茫茫”meansthatnothingfromeachotherhasbeenheardsincelastmeeting.GliesandFletcherbothadoptdialoguesfortheirtranslations.Glies’s“misshisformandvoice”maynotbethatclosetoexpressionsofhisnativespeakers,but“miss”strengthenstheupsetatmospherewhichshallhelpreadersunderstandthestoryfromthecontext.BothFletcherandYangusetheexpressionof“since(one’s)parting”,whichshowstheirtranslationsfitthelanguage-32-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegreehabitoftargetreaders.Besides,onceagain,YangdoesnotuseanyemotionalwordlikesorrowinFletcher’ssentence,whichsuggeststhathetendstobeobjectiveinhistranslation.Bycontrast,Xuusesjustoneword“nothing”tocoveralltheinformationandhedoesnotuse“she”tointroducewhohasbeeninvolvedbuttouse“eachother”instead.中有一人字太真Glies:AmongthemisonewhosenamesoundsuponlipsasEternalFletcher:Andoneamongthem,T’ai-chencalled,thenalltherestmoreare,Yang:OnewasnamedTaizhen.Xu:amongthemwasaqueenwhosenamewasEverTrue;If“太真”weredirectlytranslatedinto“Taizhen”or“T’ai-chen”likeFletcherandYangHsien-yihavedonefollowingtheChinesephonetictranscriptions,certainconnotationsandimagesdeliveredbythepoemwouldbemissedduringtheprocessofthetranslation.IthasbeenyearssinceConcubineYangwaskilled.Theemperorstillcouldnotstopmissinghislover.Hemissedhisgirlsomuchandwastrappedintoanunrealisticimaginationwheremanyfairiesdwelledinthatimmortalworld.Oneofthefairieswasdescribedasbeautifulashispassedwifeandshewasnamedas“太真”.Inthiscontext,BaiJuyididnotnamethisunrealfairywithnopurpose.ShecouldbeconsideredasareflectionofLadyYanglivinginthebottomheartofthemonarch.Basedontheaboveanalysis,Glies’s“Eternal”,andXu’s“EverTrue”,tosomedegree,deliverthepoeticimagesbetter.Bycontrast,Yang’stranslationisnotrichininformation.但教心似金钿坚Glies:“Tellhim,”shesaid,“tobefirmofheart,asthisgoldandenamel…”Fletcher:“Andtellhimthatmyheartisfixed,astrueasisthegold…”-33-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegreeYang:“Aslongasourlovelastslikejewelsandgold…”Xu:“Ifourtwoheartsasfirmasthegoldshouldremain…”Itisuniversallyacknowledgedthatthegoldischaracterizedasbeingfirminhardnessandbeingstableinquality.Inthiscase,whatthepoemmeansisthatwewillgetareuniononedayaslongaswearepersistentinourloveforever.BothGliesandXutranslate“似…坚”into“asfirmas”,whicharequitevividforChinesereaderstoestablishrelationsbetweentheirstableloveandthefirmgold.Bycontrast,Fletcher’s“astrueas”andYang’s“lastlike”revealanothercharacterofthegold—seldomgettingdeprecatedinvalue.Thiskindofinterpretationmightbeeasilyacceptedbywesternerswhoseworthvaluetendtobemoney-oriented.4.1.1.2FeaturesReflectedinLexicalDensityLexicalDensity(LD)isrelevanttotheproportionofnotionalwordsinthegivencorpus.ThecalculationformulatakeninthepresentthesiswasputforwardbyUre.(1971).NotionalWordsLD100%(2)TotalVolumeofWordsHuZhuanglin(2002)classifiedEnglishlexiconsintonotionalwordsandfunctionwords.ThenotionalwordsinEnglishusuallyrefertothosethathaveactualmeanings,includingnouns,verbs,adjectivesandadverbs.TheLexicalDensity,tosomeextent,cansuggestthedegreeofdifficulty(Baker,1995).Inotherwords,theproportionofnotionalwordsinatextkeepsapositiverelationwiththedifficultindexofatext.WiththeaidofWordlistfunctionofWordSmithTools,theresearchisabletocalculateLDinfourversions.Figure4-2demonstratescomparisons.-34-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegreeFigure4-2ScaleforLexicalDensity6058.2458.3257.1157.51585653.2545250YangXuGliesFletcherBPCItcanbeseenthatYang’sLexicalDensitycomesclosertoGlies’sandtheirLDarehigherthanthoseofXuandFletcher.ThevariationsinLDmaysuggestfollowingconclusions:(1)Allfourtranslatedversionsaretextswithhighlexicaldensities.(2)Asmentionedabove,Glies’sversionisaprose,thetokensofwhichwouldbemuchhigherthanthoseincommonmetricalforms.Glies’sdata(58.32%)againprovesthispoint.Besides,Yang’sversionisafreeverse.Hisdata(58.24%)comestothesecondposition,indicatingthattheLDofagiventextiscloselyrelatedtoitswrittenstyle.(3)TheLDofFletcheris57.51%whichisclosesttothatofBPC(53.2%).Apparently,itindicateshowFletchertakesthenativereaders’acceptanceintoconsiderationsanddecreasesthedifficultiesoftranslationsviadownsizingthenotionalscale,whichwouldbemucheasiertobeunderstoodandlikelytobeacceptedbyreaders.Fromthisperspective,Fletcher’stranslationmightbepreferableandpopularamongwesternpeople.Apartfromthosecommonfeatures,Table4-2exhibitsthedistributionsofnotionalwordsineachcategory.Distinctivestylisticcharactersofeachtranslatorcouldbedrawn-35-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegreebycomparisons.Table4-2StatisticsofNotionalWordsInEachCategoryItemYangXuGliesFletcherNN198240237253NNP45354545NNPS2100NNS916510782VB23363940VBD98982888VBN43343030VBP342825VBZ354927VBG4020202JJ91919296JJR2251JJS3103VBG2018RB5154967RBR1022AccordingtoTable4-2,itcanbeseenthatalthoughtranslatorsdoshareseveraluniversalfeatures,therearestillsomeindividualstylesineachtranslation.Inordertobetterdemonstratethedifferences,fourlevels“High,VeryHigh,Low,VeryLow”areemployedforrankingthedata.Tablesblowdemonstratedistinctivefeaturesofeachversion.-36-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegreeTable4-3DistinctiveFeaturesofYangHsien-yi’sTranslationCategoryNNVBVBNVBGVBDLevelLowLowVeryHighVeryHighHighAccordingtoTable4-3,VBD(verbinpasttense)ishigh,indicatingthatthetextismainlystatedinthepasttense.AnotherprominentfeatureisthatnounsandverbsinbaseformsareatlowlevelbutVBN(pastparticles)are,bycontrast,inahighposition.ItsuggeststhatYangisaccustomedtousingpassivevoicestotranslatethestory,whichrevealsthatacharacteristhrownintopassivitythroughoutthepoem.Inaddition,VBG(presentparticipleorgerund)areextremelyhigh,whichprovesthatYangattachesmuchimportancetoheighteningthedynamicsofactionsandtheinfluencemadebythestaticscenery.Asmentionedabove,becausepassivevoicesarefrequentlyusedinYang’stranslation,someonemightbealwayslaunchedintoapassivepositioninthispoem.Thereareonlytworolesinthistragicstoryanditshouldbethatfemalecharacter.YangKuei-fei,asaconcubine,couldnotcontroltoomuchofherfate,becausehergloriouslifealldependedontheroyalrights,whichfundamentallyindicatedthatshewasdoomedtobeinadisadvantagedposition.ExamplesareextractedfromtheYang’stranslationforfurtherdiscussions.养在深闺人不知Sinceshewassecludedinherchamber,noneoutsidehadseenher.一朝选在君王侧Onedayshewaschosentoattendtheemperor.春寒赐浴华清池，温泉水滑洗凝脂Oncoldspringday,shewasorderedtobatheintheHuaqingPalacebaths.惊破《霓裳雨衣舞》-37-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegreeTheRainbowandFeatherGarmentsDancewasstoppedbysoundsofwar.婉转峨眉马前死Soshewiththemoth-likeeyebrowswaskilledbeforehishorses.FivesentencesabovegenerallyhavecoveredthreestagesofLadyYang’s(YangKuei-fei)life,namely,growingupinherinnerchamber,beingselectedasthemonarch’sconcubineandreceivinggreatfavors,andfinallybeingforcedtotakethesuicide.FromLadyYang’sgrowingup,YangHsien-yihaspreferredtousepassivevoiceslike“secludedinherchamber”.Thenonceherbeautywasknownbythemonarch,“shewaschosentoattendtheemperor”.Afterwards,greatfavorsandfamecontinuallycame.“HuaqingPalacebaths”waslocatedin“HuaqingPalace”whichwastheroyalpalaceexclusivetothemonarchandhisconcubines.“Shewasorderedtobathe”inthatpoolandthendancedthe“RainbowandFeatherGarments”forthemonarch.However,happydaysdidnotlastlongandthewarwascoming.Themonarchandhisconcubinehadtorunawayforsafety.Duringtheirescape,thetroopswouldnotmoveforwardanylongerunlessLadyYangwaskilledinfrontofthem.Inthesamecases,theotherthreetranslatorshavenotusedasmanypassivevoicesasYanghasdone.ItalsoreflectsthatYangtendstokeepobjectiveduringtheprocessofthetranslation.Theexamplesfromtheotherthreetranslatorsareillustratedblowforcomparisons.Xu’version:Ininnerchambersbred…Shebathedinglassywater…“SongofRainbowSkirtandCoatofFeathers”break.Glies’sversion:Shebathedinthe…Breakingrudelyupontheairofthe“RainbowShirtandFeatherJacket”.-38-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegreeUntilsheperishesinsightofall…Fletcher’sversion:Theybathedin……toshatterthatsweetrainbowsongofBeautyinLove’sarms.…tillthosepersuasiveeyebrowsbeforethechargersfall.Asmentionedabove,anotherfeatureinYangHsien-yi’stranslationthatcanbeconcludedfromTable4-3isthatpresentparticiplesorgerundsarefrequentlyused.ExamplesofpresentparticiplesorgerundsinYang’stranslationareextractedandarelistedasfollows.a.Modifyingnouns:梨花一枝Likeablossomingpeartreeinspring…在地愿为连理枝Onearthfloweringspringsonthesamebranch!Fortheexamplesabove,“blossoming”and“flowering”areusedtomodify“tree”and“springs”.Ononehand,imagesofthepoemaremorevividlypresentedtoreaders.Ontheotherhand,toputmodifiersbeforethecorewordconformstotheorderofclassicalChinese,whichillustratesagainthatYangpreferstotaketheliteraltranslation.b.Servingasadverbialmodifiers:君王掩面救不得Coveringhisfacewithhishands,hecouldnotsaveher.回看血泪相和流Turningbacktolookather,histearsmingledwithherblood.回眸一笑Glancingbackandsmiling,sherevealed…-39-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegree含情凝涕谢君王Controllingherfeelingsandlookingaway,shethankedtheemperor.Theaboveexamplesdemonstratethatpresentparticiplesusuallyserveasadverbialmodifiers.ItcanbeseenthatYangtriestomatchthetranslationinaccordwiththeorderofChinese,buthestillstrictlyfollowsthegrammaticalrules.Besides,notonlyshallreaderssharesamethefeelingswiththecharactersinthepoem,butalsothedescriptionsofeachactionwilllaydeepimpressionsuponaudiences.Table4-4DistinctiveFeaturesofGlies’sTranslationCategoryNNSVBDRBLevelVeryHighVeryLowVeryLowTable4-4demonstratesthefeaturesmanifestedinGlies’sversion.Obviously,itillustratesthatNNS(commonnounsinpluralforms)isatahighlevelandVBD(verbinpasttense)rankslowlyinGlies’stranslation.Besides,italsoindicatesthatverbsinthepasttenseandthepresenttensearemingledtogetherandthepresenttenseislargelyutilized,whichisquitedifferentfromthoseofothers.Basedonthis,itcanbeinferredthatGliesaimstodistinguishtheoccurrenceofthestoryaccordingtothetimeorder.Afterdeepreading,itcanbefoundthatgenerallytherearethreepartsdividedbydifferenttenses.AsmentionedinChapter2,Glies’stranslationofChangHenGeisaprose.Presenttensesarelargelyappliedthroughoutthetextfromthebeginningto“Breakingwithherhandstheyellowgold,anddividingtheenamelintwo.”Afterthat,itcomestothedialoguewhenthemonarchandhisloverareabouttoseparate,whichiswritteninthepasttense.However,theirconversationsarestatedinthepresenttense.Aftertheirdialogue,itreturnstothepresenttense.AnotherobviouspointisthatRB(commonadverbs)israrelyused,provingthatGliesisnotaccustomedtousingadverbs-40-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegreetomodifyverbsorsentences.Table4-5DistinctiveFeaturesofFletcher’sTranslationCategoryVBPVBZLevelHighHighTable4-6DistinctiveFeaturesofXuYuanchong’sTranslationCategoryVBPVBZVBDLevelVeryLowVeryLowHighTable4-5andTable4-6demonstratedistinctivefeaturesmanifestedinFletcher’sandXu’stranslations.ItcanbeseenthatVBD(verbinpasttense)isfrequentlyusedinXu’sversion.Bycontrast,inFletcher’stranslation,Table4-5exhibitsthatbothVBPrd(verbinpresenttense,not3personsingular)andVBZ(verbinpresenttense,3rdpersonsingular)performhighinfrequencies.Inthissense,Fletcheralsoregardsthepresenttenseasthebestchoicefortranslatingthepoem.Incomparison,likeYangHsien-yi,Yuanchongpreferstoemploypasttensestointerpretthestory.4.1.1.3FeaturesReflectedinLexicalFrequencyTheaveragelengthoftypesincorpuscanbedefinedastheaveragewordlength,whichregardsthenumberoflettersasthebasiccountingunit.Thelongertheaveragewordlengthis,themorelonglexiconsappearintranslations.Universallyspeaking,mostEnglishtextsdoshareacommonphenomenonthattherangeofaveragewordlengthisusuallyaround4letters.Iftheaveragewordlengthinthegiventextisabove4letters,thetextmayinvolvemorecomplicatedlexicons.AccordingtothestatisticsfromWordSmith,thecomparisonsofaveragewordlengthoffourtranslatedtextsare-41-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegreepresentedinFigure4-3.Figure4-3ScaleforAverageWordLength4.64.544.54.344.384.44.244.34.214.24.14YangXuGliesFletcherBPCIncomparison,itcanbeseenthattheaveragewordlengthofBritishpoemsis4.21andtheotherfourtranslationsallstaynexttothisstandard.Besides,fourtranslatorsdonotexploreobviousdifferencesinwordlength.Comparedwithothers,theaveragewordlengthofFletcher’stextperformsthelowest(4.24)andisclosesttothatofBPC(4.21),whichagainindicatethatFletcher’stranslationfitsthelanguagehabitsoftargetreaders.Thisconjecturecanalsobemadefromcomparisonsofdistributionsofeachcategory,whichisdisplayedinFigure4-4.Figure4-4ScaleforWordLengthDistributions400300YangXu200Glies100Fletcher01234567891011121314Figure4-4plainlyshowsthatFletcher’swordlengthperformshighamong3-6-42-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegreelettersbutisinferiorintheperformanceoflongletters(7-14).FletcherattemptstosimplifythedifferencesbetweenEnglishandclassicalChineseintheprocessofthetranslation.Heavoidsusingtoomanycomplicatedlonglexiconsandfocusesmuchontheshortwordssoastocreateapithywriting.Onthewhole,fourtranslationsshareauniversaltendencyinwordlengthdistributions.Moreover,theWordListfunctioninWordSmithToolscanalsocalculatethefrequencyofhighlyusedwordsandshallprovideoverallcomparisonsofhighfrequentwords,aswhatisshowninTable4-7.Thetop5highlyusedwordsinBPCare“the”(1522),“and”(1063),“of”(502),“in”(318)and“to”(288).Table4-7FrequenciesofTop20WordsYangXuGliesFletcherRankWordFreq.WordFreq.WordFreq.WordFreq.1the103the74the127the982and34and46of60and493her32her32and56her404of26to27to35of275she24in24her29in246was22of21in22to217to21was21she21his148in19she18a15he139his15with13his14with1310a14he11he13him1211with14on11with13that1212emperor14a10on12on1113he13his10for11all1014at10monarch9are10a915like10not8by10is916on10as7is10she917were8at7as9were918from7earth7but7but919had7from7like7I820spring7could6one7love8-43-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegreeObviously,aftercalculating,fourtranslationstotallyhavefivefrequentwordsincommonwiththoseinBPCamongtop20highfrequentwords,whichare“the,and,of,to,in”.Besides,thefourtranslatedtextsgenerallyshare12frequentwords,comprisedbyeightfunctionwordsandfourpronounswithoutanotionalone.Theyare:the,and,of,to,in,on,a,with,her,she,he,his.Itconcludesthat:(1)FourtranslationshavemuchincommonwiththeBritishPoeticCorpusintermsoffunctionwords,indicatingthatthetranslationsofChangHenGefitthefeaturethatgrammaticalwordsaremorefrequentlyusedinEnglish.(2)“her”and“she”arethetoptwopronouns,revealingtheclueofthestory.Ittellsthereaderthatthemaincharacterinthispoemisafemale.Thereasonwhytheobjectivecase“her”insteadofthesubjectivecase“she”ismostlyreferencedisthatthegirlmightbethreatenedandlandedinapassiveposition,whichagainsupportstheclaimmentionedabove.LadyYangcouldnotcontrolherfateandcontinueherlovewithherloverandfinallyhadtofacethetragicendofherlife.4.1.1.4FeaturesReflectedinSpecificTermsGenerallyspeaking,specifictermsinclassicalChinesepoetryarethemostimpossiblepartstobetranslated.ThereasonisthatthosetermsarestronglyboundedwithculturalcontextsinancientChina,involvinghistoricalfiguresandspots,particularsceneries,traditionalaccessories,customsaswellasidioms.Whentranslatingthosespecificterms,translatorsshallfirstlycomprehendwhattheseconnotationsrefertoinmodernworldandthenareabletotranslatethemintoacceptableEnglishwhichmightbereceivedandunderstoodbyreaders.InChangHenGe,BaiJuyiutilizesscoresofspecifictermswhichnotonlyhavestrengthenedpoeticimagesbutalsohaveaddeddifficultiestotranslations.Generally,translatorsexploredistinctionsintranslatingspecificterms,becausetheirChinesecognitionsarenotatthesamelevel.-44-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegreeInthisthesis,theresearchonspecifictermsisbasedontheC-Ebilingualcorpus.ThetaggingoftheChinesecorpusisdifferentfromthatofEnglish.AccordingtothelanguagefeaturesandcontextualmeaningsofChangHenGe,theChinesecharactersaremanuallytaggedwithverbs,adjectives,adverbs,specialsceneries,addressingtitleofcharacters,aswellasspecialculture-loadedwordsandwordsofmeasurement.Thelastfourtermswillbemainlydiscussedandconcentratedoninthispart.Viacollectingandcomparingtheuniversalaswellasdistinctivefeaturesreflectedinspecificterms,stylesoftranslatorsaretoberevealed.Foraddressingtitleofcharacters,theyare“HanHuang(汉皇)”,“JunWang(君王)”,“FenDai(粉黛)”,“ShiEr(侍儿)”,“ShengZhu(圣主)”,“AJian(阿监)”,“QingEr(青娥)”,“EMei(蛾眉)”,“FangShi(方士)”,“TianZi(天子)”,“XianZi(仙子)”,“XiaoYu(小玉)”,and“ShuangCheng(双成)”.Thetitlesoftheleadingmaleinthepoemarevarious.InChinese,“汉皇”,“君王”,“圣主”and“天子”havebeenusedinthepoemandtheircorrespondingtranslationsareillustratedinTable4-8.Table4-8Translationsof“汉皇”,“君王”,“圣主”and“天子”ChineseYang’sversionXu’sversionGlies’sversionFletcher’sversion汉皇HanemperorMonarchHisLordofHanImperialMajesty君王EmperorMonarchmonarchPrince圣主EmperorMonarchHismajestyHisbosom天子HanEmperorMonarchHanHuangSonofHeavenInessence,allthesetitlesreferredtoonepersonandhisrealnamewas“唐玄宗”inhistory.InancientChina,thehereditarysystemofthronesuccessionhadbeencarriedoutforhundredsofyears.“唐玄宗”inheritedtheroyalrightsfromhisancestorsandbegantoruletheTangDynastyaroundthe7thcentury.ThereasonwhyBaiJuyiused-45-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegree“汉皇”insteadof“唐皇”orothertitleswasthatitwouldbeoffensivetothecurrentrulerifrealnameswererevealed.Consideringtheabovereasons,alltitlesrelatedto“唐玄宗”weretaboos.“汉皇”actuallyderivedfrom“汉武帝”whowasobsessedwithextendingbordersviawars.Thisresembledmuchwithbehaviorsof“唐玄宗”,sothat“汉皇”wasjustahintofthecurrentdominatoratthattime.Anothertitle“天子”,inChineseculture,referredtotherulerwhowasdesignatedtodominatehispeople.Whentranslatingthesetitles,theotherthreetranslators,exceptXuYuanchong,allliterallytranslatedthemas“HanEmperor”,“HanHuang”“SonofHeaven”,or“LordofHan”,whichmightcauseconfusionsforaveragereaderswhodidnotknowmuchaboutChinesehistory.Besides,“HisImperialMajesty”and“HisMajesty”inGlies’sworkwerehonortitlesforakingoraqueen.GliesexploreddominationsoftheQueenofVictoriaandQueenElizabethII,sothathisinterpretationsmightfitthetasteoftargetreaders.ForXuYuanChongandYangHsien-yi,theirdistinctionscouldbeseenfromtheusageofmonarchandemperor.Thoughbothmonarchandemperorcanstandfordominators,theystillexploreslightdifferences.“Monarch”wasmostlyappliedinthehereditarysovereignsystemandanypersonorathingthatheldadominantpositioncouldbecalledmonarch.However,“Emperor”originallysolelyreferredtotherulerofRomanEmpiresandonlythosewhohadreceivedaceremonyatwhichacrownwasformallyplacedontheheadofanewkingbythepopecouldbeaddressedasEmperor.Inthissense,Xu’s“monarch”iscloselyattachedtothecontextaswellasisclosetothehistoricalbackgroundinChinaatthattime.Forspecialspots,theyare“LinQiong(临邛)”,“HuaQingChi(华清池)”,“LiGong(骊宫)”,“YuYang(渔阳)”,“XingGong(行宫)”,“MaWeiPo(马嵬坡)”,“TaiYe(太液)”,“WeiYang(未央)”,“HongDu(鸿都)”,“JinQue(金阙)”,“ZhaoYangDian(昭阳殿)”,“PengLaiGong(蓬莱宫)”,“ChangAn(长安)”,“ChangShengDian(长生-46-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegree殿)”.“马嵬坡”,“华清池”,“长安”and“长生殿”areselectedforfurtheranalysisherebyandarelistedinTable4-9,whichareallspecialplacesinancientChina.Table4-9Translationsof“马嵬坡”,“华清池”,“长安”and“长生殿”ChineseXu’sversionYang’sversionGlies’sversionFletcher’sversion马嵬坡TheslopeMaweiSlopeMa-weihillSlopeofMa-wei华清池Warm-fountainHuaqingPalaceHua-ch’ingPoolHua-ch’ingLakepoolbaths长安capitalChang’anImperialcityChang-an长生殿LongLifeHallPalaceofHallofChang-shenghallEternalImmortalityYouth“马嵬坡”inthispoemreferredtowhereLadyYangwaskilledbythesoldiers.Xujusttranslatesitinto“theslope”,demonstratingthattheactualnameofthisspotisnotthatsignificantandthereisnoneedtoplainlyinterpretthename.However,alltheothertranslatorstaketransliterations,like“MaweiSlope”and“Ma-weihill”.Thisphenomenoncanalsobediscoveredinthetranslationof“华清池”.“华清池”wasonceahotspringpoolfortheroyalclassatthattime.Theoriginallinewas“春寒赐浴华清池”,indicatingLadyYangwasfavoredtohaveabathinthispool.Inthissense,forthosewhodonotknowmuchabouttheculturalsignificanceofthispool,itisnecessaryforthemtoknowitsfeatures.Xu’swarm-fountainpooldirectlypointsoutthatthepoolisusedtotakeahotbath.Alltheotherthreetranslators,bycontrast,translateitaccordingtothephonetictranscription.What’smore,for“长安”and“长生殿”,Fletcheragainemploysthesamestrategy,interpretingthemas“Chang-an”and“Chang-shenghall”.“长安”wasonceafamousancientcityinChinaaswellasthecapitalofTangDynasty.Fromthisaspect,Xu’s“capital”ismuchclosertothehidden-47-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegreecontext,comparedwithGlies’s“Imperialcity”.“长生”meansthatone’slifespanissolongandcannotcometoanend.Inthiscase,Xu’s“LongLife’isaword-by-wordtranslation.Yang’s“EternalYouth”andGlies’s“Immortality”are,bycontrast,freetranslationsbasedonunderstandings.Forspecialculture-loadedwords,theyare“ShenGui(深闺)”,“WuYanSe(无颜色)”,“NingZhi(凝脂)”,“XinChengEnZe(新承恩泽)”,“JinBuYao(金步摇)”,“JinWu(金屋)”,“NingSiZhu(凝丝竹)”,“NiChangYuYiQu(霓裳羽衣曲)”,“HuaDian(花钿)”,“WeiDi(委地)”,“CuiQiao(翠翘),”“TianXuanDiZhuan(天旋地转)”,“JiaoFang(椒房)”,“GuDengTiaoJin(孤灯挑尽)”,“YuanYangWa(鸳鸯瓦)”,“ShuangHua(霜花)”,“FeiCuiQin(翡翠衾)”,“ZhuLianYinPingYiLiKai(珠帘银屏迤逦开)”,“ChangShengDian(长生殿)”,“LianLiZhi(连理枝)”,“BiYiNiao(比翼鸟)”.Inthiscase,“椒房”,“鸳鸯瓦”,“霓裳羽衣曲”and“比翼鸟”willbefocusedonandtheircorrespondingtranslationsarelistedasfollows.椒房Fletcher:HerpalaceGlies:PepperChamberYang:SpicedchamberXu:Palacedeep“椒房”stemmedfromtheHanDynasty(206B.C-24A.D.)andwasonceservedasthepalacefortheemperor.InChangHenGe,itreferredtotheplacewhereLadyYanglived.“椒”actuallymeansthepaintingingredientsfromasortoftreescalled“椒树”.However,“椒房”,bynomeans,canbeconnectedwithpepperorspices.Inthissense,Fletcher’s“Herpalace”andXu’s“Palacedeep”omitthetranslationof“椒”,unlikeGlies’s“PepperChamber”andYang’s“Spicedchamber”whosetranslationsstrivetomatcheachword.-48-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegree鸳鸯瓦Fletcher:RoofwheretruelovedweltGlies:Duck-and-draketilesYang:Pairedlove-birdtilesXu:Lovebirdtiles“鸳鸯瓦”wereakindoftraditionaltilesforroofconstructioninancientChina,theshapeofwhichresembledwiththerelationshipof“鸳鸯”(acoupleofducks).Inthecontextofthispoem,“鸳鸯”alsoservedasmetaphorsfortheeternallovebetweenthemonarchandLadyYang.Fletcher’s“roofwheretruelovedwelt”isadetailedinterpretation,whichmightbeeasilyunderstoodbywesterners.Inaddition,YangHsien-yi’s“pairedlove-birdtiles”andXuYuanchong’s“lovebirdtiles”alltakefreetranslations.Inaddition,Gliestranslatesitas“Duck-and-draketiles”,whichsuperficiallykeepsitsliteralmeaning.霓裳羽衣曲Fletcher:“SweetrainbowsongofBeautyinlove’sarms”Glies:“RainbowshirtandFeatherJacket”Yang:“RainbowandFeatherGarmentsDance”Xu:“SongofRainbowSkirtandCoatofFeathers”“霓裳羽衣曲”wasarenowneddancingsongcomposedbyEmperorMingofTangandwasfamousforitsgracefuldanceandsweetmodes.“霓裳羽衣”referredtodancersdressedasstunningasfairiesintheheaven.Themonarchimaginedthatthedancersweredancingupintheairwithrainbowsasclothes.Inreality,theprototypeof“霓裳”weretraditionalcostumeinancientChina,thelengthofwhichwerefromthebreasttothefeet.EspeciallyinTangDynasty,suchkindsofskirtswerequitepopular,astheywouldshapecharmingfigures.“羽衣”werecoatsontopmadefromfeather.Basedon-49-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegreetheaboveanalysis,Fletcher’s“sweetrainbowsongofBeautyinlover’sarm”againdecreasesthedifficultyforwesternerstounderstandthehiddenculturalbackgrounds.Besides,alltheotherthree,tosomedegree,translatethetermviamatchingeachword.Asfarasthepresentauthorisconcerned,Xu’s“Rainbowskirt”ismoreprecisethanGlies’s“Rainbowshirt”.比翼鸟Fletcher:Intheheavenabove,wewouldneverdispartGlies:One-wingledbirdsYang:BirdsflyingsidebysideXu:Betwolovingbirdsflyingwingtowing“比翼鸟”wasaliteraryquotationfromancientfairytales,whichindicatedthatthetwobirdshadtoflytogetherandtokeepthesamespeedbecauseeachbirdwasonlyendowedwithoneeyeandonewing.Chinesehavekeptthetraditiontocompareconjugalloveto“比翼鸟”.Inthiscase,whenthemonarchfoundLadyYanginhisimmortalworld,thereunionwassoshortthattheyhadtoseparateimmediately.LadyYangtoldthemonarchshewouldliketobehis“比翼鸟”.Undoubtedly,itwasadramaticmetaphorfortheirlove.Fletcherdoesnotmentionbirdinhistranslation,andhedirectlyexpressesthehiddenmeaningsinstead.Inthissense,his“Intheheavenabove,wewouldneverdispart”takesthetargetreaders’acceptanceintoconsiderations.Glies’s“one-wingedbirds”describespartofthefeaturesofbirdsanditistooliteral.BothYang’s“flyingsidebyside”andXu’s“flyingwingtowing”haveutilizedalliterations(押头韵)skillfully.Othersincludewordsofmeasurementaswellasidioms.Theyare“BaiMeiSheng(百媚生)”,“WuYunQi(五云起)”,“JiuHuaZhang(九华帐)”,“JiaLiSanQianRen(佳丽三千人)”,“LiuGong(六宫)”,“BaiYuLi(百余里)”,“JiuChongChengQue(九-50-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegree重城阙)”,“LiuJunBuFa(六军不发)”“QianChengWanJi(千乘万骑)”;Idiomsare“TianShengLiZhi(天生丽质)”,“HuiMouYiXiao(回眸一笑)”,“ChunXiaoKuDuan(春宵苦短)”,“BiLuoHuangQuan(碧落黄泉)”,“LiHuaDaiYu(梨花带雨)”,“TianChangDiJiu”(天长地久).Severalexamplesareextractedforfurtheranalysis.回眸一笑百媚生Glies:Hersparklingeyeandmerrylaughterfascinatedeverybeholder.Fletcher:Ifsheturnedhersmiling,ahundredloveswereborn.Yang:Glancingbackandsmiling,sherevealedahundredcharms.Xu:Turningherhead,shesmiledsosweetandfullofgrace.Conventionally,thosewhowereextraordinarygracefulwereconsideredas“百媚”.Fletcher’s“ahundredloves”andYang’s“ahundredcharms”directlytranslatethenumber“百”.Bycontrast,Glies’s“fascinatedeverybeholder”notonlyrevealsthatshemustbeabeautybutalsosuggeststhatherbeautyshallstandoutamongothers.Besides,Xu’s“fullofgrace”fitstheconnotationsinChinesebest.佳丽三千人Glies:Threethousandpeerlessbeautiesadornedtheapartmentsofthemonarch’sharem.Fletcher:Althoughwithinhispalace,threethousanddidononebosom,melt.Yang:Thoughmanybeautieswereinthepalace,morethanthreethousandofthem.Xu:Ininnerpalacedweltthreethousandladiesfair.Inthisexample,“三千人”explicitlyrevealsthefactthattherearecountlessbeautieslivinginthepalacedesiringthefavorofthemonarch.Thefourtranslatorsalltakeliteraltranslationsandinterpretitas“threethousand”.西出都门百余里-51-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegreeGlies:AhundredlibeyondthewesterngateFletcher:Shecameforfortymiles.Yang:Theemperor…,havingleftthewestcitygatemorethanahundredli.Xu:…thirtymilesfromWesternGatetheystoppedagain.Chineseandwesternersshowdistinctionsintheunderstandingofunitsofmeasurement.“里”equalsto500metersand“mile(英里)”equalsto1609meters.Inthispoeticline,“百余里”atleastequalsto30milesaftercalculation.Inthissense,Fletcher’s“fortymiles”andXu’s“thirtymiles”allhaveconsideredwesterners’acceptanceforunderstanding.Inaddition,GliesandYangagainliterallytranslateitas“Ahundredli”withlittleculturaltransference.BelowareseveralChineseidiomsextractedfromthepoemforanalysis.春宵苦短Glies:Springnights,tooshortalas!Fletcher:ThenightsofSpringareshort,alas!Yang:Regrettingonlythespringnightsweretooshort.Xu:…fortheblessednightwasshort.“春宵苦短”originallymeansthatthemonarchfeelsunhappyaboutthefactthatspringnightsaretooshort.Inessence,itindicateshowpeoplefeeltimeflies.Inthiscase,Glies’s“Springnights,tooshort”andFletcher’s“ThenightsofSpringareshort”allkeepitsliteralmeanings.However,theybothaddaninterjection“alas!’tostrengthenthemonarch’sthesadnessandworriestowardstheshortspringnights.Bycontrast,Yanguses“regretting”andXuuses“blessed”tostatethesadfeelings.碧落黄泉Glies:theempyreanandYellowSpringsFletcher:azurevaultandtheyellowStyxbelow-52-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegreeYang:theskyandnetherregionsXu:azurevaultanddeepestplace“碧落黄泉”,inreality,referstotheimmortalworldupintheskyandthedeepestplaceundertheground,indicatingeverycornerontheearth.GliesandFletcheragainliterallytranslate“黄”intoyellow.Besides,YangHsien-yiomitsthetranslationof“黄泉”anduses“netherregions”instead.Inaddition,XuYuanchonguses“vault”torevealtheplacewhereimmortalsliveanduses“deepestplace”tointerpret“黄泉”.4.1.2Translator’sStyleManifestedatSyntacticLevelTheaboveparthasconductedaprofoundresearchonlexiconsandseveralstylesoftranslatorshavebecomesalient.AsintroducedinChapter3,syntaxisanorganiccombinationofwordsandphrases,butitconcentratesmuchonthearrangementsoflexiconsbasedoncertaingrammaticalrules.Inthefollowingdiscussion,explorationsshallbefurtheredintosyntaxcategory,involvingthemeasurementofsentencelengthaswellastheanalysisofspecialsentencepatterns.4.1.2.1FeaturesReflectedinSentenceLengthGenerally,sentencesinEnglishusuallystartwithacapitalcharacterandendswithafullstop,anexclamationmarkoraquestionmark.Theaveragesentencelength(ASL)iscalculatedbytheunitofwords.Bulter(1985)dividedsentencesintothreekinds:short(1-9words);medium(10-25words);long(>25words).QinHongwuandWangKefei(2009)pointedoutthatcomparedwiththesourcelanguagetext,translatedlanguagesshowedanincreaseofwords.Inaddition,Laviosa(1998)concludedthattheASLoftranslatedlanguageswouldbehigherthanthatofsourcelanguagesthroughcomparingamonolingualcomparablecorpus.-53-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegreeTotalWordsASL100%(3)TotalSentencesThecomparisonsofASLamongfourtranslationsareillustratedinFigure4-5.Figure4-5ScaleforAverageSentenceLength1411.8211.1811.231210.219.710786420ChineseYangXuGliesFletcherBPCVersionItcanbeseenthatfourtranslationsexploredistinctionsconcerningthelengthofsentences.Besides,theASLofYangHsien-yi,GliesandFletcherallbelongtothemediumone(10-25words).Besides,XuYuanchong’sASL(9.7words)closelymeetsthelowerboundaryofthemediumstandard(10-25words).Amongthem,Xu’sASL(9words)takestheclosestdistancetothatoftheChineseversionofChangHenGe(7characters).ItagainprovesthatXuYuanchongisskillfulinusingfewerwordstoexpressthesamepoeticimage,comparedwithothertranslators.Inthissense,hiswrittenformisclosesttothatoftheoriginalwork.Apartfromthat,thoughFletcherlikeXuYuanchongalsotranslateshispoemintoametricalone.HisASLisratherhigherthanthatoftheoriginalChinese.However,hisdataisextremelyclosetothatofBPC(11.23words).ItagainprovesthatFletcher’stranslationkeepsalongwiththelanguagehabitsofhisnativespeakers.ThesamephenomenonalsogoestoGlies,whoranksthefirstwithnearly12wordsaveragelyin-54-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegreeeachsentence.Inthissense,itcanbeinferredthatwesterntranslatorsproperlyaddinformationforsupplementsandsometimeschoosetochangesentencepatternssoastohelptargetreadersforunderstanding.Tosomedegree,Glies’swrittenformexplainswhyheranksthefirst.AsmentionedinChapterOne,histranslationisaprose,theASLofwhichwouldbemuchlongerthanthoseofcorrespondingmetricalstyles.Exampleshaveextractedfromtranslationsforfurtheranalysis.含情凝睇谢君王(7characters)Fletcher:Herheartshestilled;herglancesveiled;andthankedherEmperor’scare.(12words)Glies:Subduingheremotions,restraininghergrief,shetendersthankstohisMajesty.(12words)Yang:Controllingherfeelingsandlookingaway,shethankedtheemperor.(10words)Xu:Shebadehimthanklord,lovesickandbrokenhearted.(8words)Inthisexample,actually,both“含情”and“凝睇”areactionsofLadyYangwhotriestoexpressherreluctancetopartwithherlover.Xu’stranslationdoesnotmentionanywordtomatch“情”and“睇”.Heparaphrasesthembasedonhisownunderstandingsinstead.Heonlyuses“lovesick”and“brokenhearted”toshowLadyYang’semotions.Bycontrast,FletcherandGliesaswellasYangHsien-yiallchoosetoaddthesubjectsandverbsthathavebeenomittedandtranslateitinaccordancewiththeChineseorder,indicatingtheirword-by-wordtranslationorientations.ThedifferenceisthatFletcherhasnotonlyappendedthegrammaticalstructures,butalsohasattachedmuchimportancetoparallel,like“stilled”and“veiled”.YangHsien-yiisaccustomedtoutilizingpresentparticiplesforinterpretations.Bycontrast,GliesusestwoadverbialstodescribetheemotionsofLadyYang,whichisrelativelymorevividthanFletcher’s-55-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegreetranslationandmakesthepoeticimagesmoredynamic.雪肤花貌参差是(7characters)Fletcher:Sowhiteherskin,sosweetherface,nonecouldwithhercompare.(13words)Glies:Andbyhersnow-whiteskinandflower-likefaceheknowsthatthisisshe.(14words)Yang:Withsnowyskinandflowerbeauty,suggestingthatthismightbeshe.(12words)Xu:Hersnow-whiteskinandsweetfacemightaffordaclue.(10words)Inthisexample,“雪肤”showsthewhitenessofLadyYang’sskinand“花貌”provesherbeauty.Fletcheradoptsalliterationstotranslatethesentence.However,his“sowhiteherskin”and“sosweetherface”directlyexpressthehiddenmeaningviaomittingthetranslationof“雪”and“花”.Bycontrast,Xu’s“snow-whiteskin”and“sweetface”,obviously,keepacohesiveformwiththepoem.What’smore,Gliestendstoaddextraprepositions,pronounsandotheritemsforsupplements,indicatinghisprosaicstyle.Comparedwithothers,Yang’stranslationstrictlyfollowstheorderofChineseanditreflectsthatYang’sstyletendstobeloyaltotheoriginalpoem.其中绰约多仙子(7characters)Fletcher:Wheremanyfairiesstoodabout,somodestlyandfair.(9words)Glies:Andtheremanygentleandbeautifulimmortalspasstheirdaysinpeace.(12words)Yang:Whereindweltlovelyfairyfolk.(5words)Xu:dweltsomanyfairiesasgracefulasflowers.(8words)Inthisexample,“绰约”actuallyreferstothosewhoarebeautiful.Xuusesaninvertedsentenceaswellasametaphorfortranslating“绰约”viacomparingfairiesto-56-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegreegracefulflowers.ThoughXu’slanguages,tosomeextent,seemtogobeyondthegrammaticalrules,itreflectshisskillfultranslationsfromanotherangleofview.Again,thestructure“so+adj.”appearsinFletcher’stranslation,whichcanbeprovedfromtheaboveexamples.Thisstructureisemployedtodealwiththerelationshipbetweenmodifiersandthecoreword,whichwouldbehelpfulinstrengtheningimportantinformationandmakingdeepimpressionsuponreaders.Besides,Yang’stranslationagainmatcheseachword.ForGlies,heisobsessedwithvividdescriptions,becausehistranslationisaprosaicstyle.云髻半偏新睡觉(7characters)Fletcher:Hercloud-likehairhungallway,sofreshfromsleepthedame.(13words)Glies:Hercloud-likecoiffure,disheveled,showsthatshewasjustrisenfromsleep.(13words)Yang:Hercloudytresseswereawry,justsummonedfromhersleep.(10words)Xu:Hercloudlikehairawry,notfullawakeatall.(9words)Inthisexample,oncemore,Fletchertakesthestructureof“so+fresh”torevealthatLadyYanghasjustgotup.Theutilizationofthissyntaxpatterns,ononehand,shalladdcertainlogicalinformationtoindicatethatthereasonwhyherhairisinamessisbecauseshehasjustgotup.Thisisahiddencasualrelationship.Gliesexpressesthesamelogicalrelationshipviausinganobjectclauseafter“show”.ForYangHsien-yi,histranslationstrictlyfitsthegrammaticalrules.AsregardtoXu’stranslation,hedoesnotfocusonthegrammarthatmuchbutconcentratesmuchontheform.4.1.2.2FeaturesReflectedinSpecialSentencePatternsWithregardtoclassicalChineseessays(文言文)includingancientpoems,thesyntaxrulesshowdistinctivefeaturesfromthoseinmodemwritings.Inclassical-57-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegreeChinesewritings,poetsoressayistsusuallyprefertoputtheimportantinformationatfirstandtheinsignificantafterwardsorjustomitthem.Generally,“therearefourspecialsentencepatternsinclassicalChinese,namely,invertedsentences(倒装句),ellipticalsentences(省略句),passivesentences(被动句)aswellasjudgementsentences(判断句)”(Bai&Chi,2008,p.182).TheexamplesofeachpatternareillustratedinTable4-10.Table4-10SpecialSentencePatternsofClassicalChineseSentencePatternsExamplesInvertedSentencesV-S(主谓倒装)甚矣，汝之不惠！(倒装句)(《愚公移山》)V-Adv(状语后置)青，取之于蓝，而青于蓝。(《劝学》〈荀子〉)Coreword-Adj/modifiers蚓无爪牙之利，筋骨(定语后置)之强，上食埃土，下饮黄泉，用心一也。(《劝学》)O-V/Prep(宾语前置)忌不自信(《邹忌讽齐王纳谏》〈战国策〉)；古之人不余欺也！《石钟山记》〈苏轼〉()EllipticalSentencesSubjectEllipsis(主语省略)永州之野产异蛇，(省略句)（蛇）黑质而白章，（蛇）触草木，（草木）尽死。(柳宗元《捕蛇者说》)VerbEllipsis(谓语省略)择其善者而从之，其不善者而改之。(《论语》六则)ObjectEllipsis(宾语省略)以相如功大，拜为上卿。（《廉颇蔺相如列传》竖子不足与谋！（《鸿门宴》-58-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegreePrepositionEllipsis(介词省略)今以钟磬置（于）水中PassiveSentencesS-VPassiverelationship由此观之，王之蔽甚(被动句)矣。（《孟子·生于忧患死于安乐》）JudgementSentencesAffirmativesentences师者，所以传道受业(判断句)解惑也。(韩愈《师说》)ConsideringthesyntaxfeaturesofChangHenGe,notalltheabovesentencepatternscanbefoundinthispoemandthosethatdemonstrateevidentsyntaxfeaturesinChangHenGehavebeenclassifiedforfurtheranalyses.A.InvertedSentenceFirst,itbeginswiththeinvertedsentences.InChangHenGe,distinctivefeaturesaremainlymanifestedinstructuresof“modifiersaftercorewords(定语后置)”,“objectsbeforeverbs(宾语前置)”aswellas“verbsbeforesubjects(主谓倒置)”.a.ClassicalPattern:Coreword-Modifier杨家有女初长成Glies:FromtheYangfamilycameamaiden,justgrownuptowomanhood.Fletcher:AmaideninthehouseofYangtowedlock’sagehadgrown.Yang:ThenadaughteroftheYangfamilymaturedtowomanhood.Xu:AmaidenoftheYangstowomanhoodjustgrown…Inthisexample,“初长成”isactuallythemodifierof“女”.IfitwastranslatedintomodernChinese,themodifierusuallywillbelocatedbeforethecoreword.However,inEnglish,relativelylongmodifiersaremostlyputafterthecoreword,which,tosomedegree,resemblestheclassicalsyntaxpatternsofChinese.Itcanbeseenthatfourtranslatorsallchoosetoputthetranslationsof“初长成”attheendofthesentences.黄埃散漫风萧索-59-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegreeGlies:Acrossvaststretchesofyellowsandwithwhistlingwinds,Fletcher:Theyellowdustisscatteredwide,anddesolatethewind.Yang:Yellowdustfilledthesky;thewindwascoldandshrill.Xu:Theyellowdustspreadwide,thewindblewdesolate.Inthisexample,“散漫”describesthewidescaleofthedustand“萧索”describesthewind.GliesfollowsmodernChinesesyntaxrulesandputs“vaststretchers”and“whistling”beforetheyellowdustandwinds.Inaddition,bothYangHsien-yiandXuYuanchongadoptthesubject-verborsubject-verbphrasestructuresfortranslation.However,inFletcher’stranslation,only“yellowdust”servesasthesubjectwithnowindmentioned.峨眉山下少人行Glies:FewindeedarethetravelerswhoreachtheheightsofMountOmi.Fletcher:BelowgreatOmiMountainbutrarelypeoplego.Yang:AtthefootoftheEmeiMountains,fewcamethatway.Xu:BelowtheEyebrowMountainswayfarersarefew.Inthisexample,whatfollowstheadjective“少”isactuallyanounphrase“行人”.However,themodifier“行”isputafterthecoreword“人”,whichisquitedifferentfromthelanguagehabitsincurrentdays.Glieshasnotonlytranslated“人行”asanoun“thetravelers”butalsosuppliedextrainterpretationstomodifythetraveler.ItcanbeseenthathistranslationhasbeenmoreorlessaffectedbytheoriginalChinese.BothFletcherandYangtranslateitintothesubject–verbstructure.AsforXuYuanchong,his“wayfarers”wouldbemuchclosertothecontext.“Wayfarers”isanold-fashionedwordandmeansthatapersonwhotravelsfromoneplacetoanotheronfoot.Besides“fare”caneasilyremindusoftheChinese“盘缠”whichreferstothemoneytakenwiththetravel.-60-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegreeb.ClassicalPattern:Object-Verb九重宫阙烟尘生Glies:Cloudsofdustenveloptheloftygatesofthecapital.Fletcher:Thecloudofdustrolledgloomilyaboutthepalacedoors.Yang:Dustfilledthehigh-toweredcapital.Xu:Acloudofdustwasraisedalongcitywallsnine-fold.Whatthissentencedescribedwasthatcloudsofdustfilledthepalacewiththewarcoming.Thenormalorderwouldbe“生烟尘”,because“烟尘”cannotbeproducedbyitselfwithoutwars.Itmightbedifficultforwesternerstounderstandthiscomplicatedrelationship,sothatGlies,FletcherandYanghaveselectedappropriatewordstointerpret“生”andhavefollowedtheoriginalorderofthepoem.Toillustratethesituation,Gliesuses“envelop”tostrengthenthefunctionof“cloudsofdust”whichcoversthewholecity.Bycontrast,onlyXutranslatesitintoapassivevoiceandexplicitlypresentsthepassiverelationshipbetween“烟尘”and“生”.词中有誓两心知Glies:Amongtherestrecallingapledgemutuallyunderstood.Fletcher:“thereisonething,”shesaidtohim,“knowonlytoustwain.”Yang:Containingapledgeonlysheandtheemperorknew.Xu:Asecretvowknownonlytoherlordandher.Inthisexample,theverbis“知”anditsobjectwouldbe“誓”.Whatthepoemdeliversisthatonlywecouldknowthesecretshiddeninourdialogue.Gliesuses“mutuallyunderstood”toindicatethepassiverelationsbetweenthe“pledge”and“understood”.Fletchertranslatesitintoadialogueformwhichmaybeeasilyacceptedbytargetreaders.Incomparison,Yangusesanobjectclausetomodifythe“pledge”.Inaddition,Xutranslatesitinaccordancewiththeoriginalorderofthepoemvia-61-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegreeemployingthepassivevoice.钗掰黄金合分钿Glies:Breakingwithherhandstheyellowgold,anddividingtheenamelintwo.Fletcher:Thisornamentandgoldenpintotakehim,giveIyou.Yang:Askingthemessengertotakethejewelboxandthegoldenpin.Xu:Shesenttoherdearlordtheotherhalfofthetwin.Inthisexample,thegoldhairpin(金钗)isbrokenoff(掰)intotwoparts,sothat“钗”servesastheobjectoftheverb“掰”.BothFletcherandYangomitthetranslationof“掰”soastodecreasethedifficultindexoftheirtranslations.Gliesadds“withhands”tohelpreadersunderstandtheactionof“break(掰)”andtransfersthetranslationinthenaturalorder.Besides,Xualsoomitsthetranslationof“掰”,butheusesfreetranslationtostatethemeaningthatthehairpinhasbeenbrokeninhalf.B.EllipticalSentenceAsfortheellipticalsentence,theellipsesinsubjects,objectsaswellasinverbsaredemonstratedasfollows.a.ClassicalPattern:SubjectEllipsis闻到汉家天子使Glies:She,hearingofthisembassysentbytheSonofHeaven.Fletcher:AndwhensheheardthattidingsfromHanHuangwartedby.Yang:OnhearingofthemessengerfromtheHanemperor.Xu:Whensheheardtherecamethemonarch’sembassy.Overtly,theChinesepoeticlineomitsthepersonwhohasheardthatamessengerwassentbythemonarch.ThispersonactuallywasLadyYang.ExceptYangHsien-yi,theotherthreetranslatorsalladopt“she”assupplements.However,YangstrictlyfollowstheorderoftheoriginalChineseandmatcheseachwordforhistranslation.-62-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegree春寒赐浴华清池Glies:InthechillsofspringbyImperialmandate,shebathedintheHua-ch’ingPool.Fletcher:’TwasinthechillySpringtime,theybathedinHua-ch’ingLake.Yang:Onecoldspringday,shewasorderedtobatheintheHuaqingPalacebaths.Xu:Shebathedinglassywaterofwarm-fountainpool.Inthisexample,LadyYangwasorderedtohaveahotbathinthepool.However,BaiJuyididnotmentionhername,becausereaderscouldgetitfromthecontext.Thoughallfourtranslatorshaveaddedthesubjectwhentranslating,thepoeticimagespresentedarequitedifferent.Glies’stranslationusesmostwordsandhepresentsmoredetails.Bycontrast,Fletcheruses“they”insteadof“she”,whichisnotclosetothecontext.Accordingtothehistoricalrecord,onlythosewhowerefavoredbythemonarchorthemonarchhimselfcouldenjoybathingthere.YangHsien-yiadoptsthepassivevoicetotranslate“赐浴”,whichagainindicateshistranslationorientation.Inthiscase,Xuchoosestoomitthetranslationof“赐”andhealsoemploysthepositivevoice,indicatingthathistranslationsarenotlimitedtofixedpatterns.b.ClassicalPattern:ObjectEllipsis遂教方士殷勤觅Glies:Thismagicianreceivesorderstourgeadiligentquest.Fletcher:He,Fang-shih,senttoseekher,andbadehimdohisbest.Yang:Hesentamagiciantomakeacarefulsearch.Xu:Hewasorderedtoseekforhereverywhere.Actually,thenormalorderwouldbe“遂教方士殷勤觅(之)”.TheobjectthathasbeenleftoutisLadyYangwhohasbeenthetargetofthemagicianofhemonarch.Inthiscase,GliesandYangjustliterallytranslatetheChinesewithnosubjectaddedfor-63-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegreesupplements.Bycontrast,bothFletcherandXuadd“her”andindicatethatthepersontheyaretryingtofindisLadyYang.c.ClassicalPattern:VerbEllipsis从此君王不早朝Glies:Fromthistimeforthnomoreaudiencesinthehoursofearlymorn.Fletcher:FromthennolongerheldthePrince,hiscourtattheearlymorn.Yang:Hestoppedattendingcourtsessionsintheearlymorning.Xu:Fromthenonthemonarchheldnolongermorningcourt.Inthissentence,thereisaverbomittedwhichoriginallyshouldappearbetween“不”and“早朝”.Because,“早朝”isanoun,whichcannotbedirectlynegatedbythenegativeadverb“不”.Amongthefourtranslations,onlyGliesomitsusinganyverb.Instead,hestatesthat“nomoreaudienceinthehoursofearlymorn”viaaddingmoreinformationintothetranslationforbetterunderstanding.Bycontrast,alltheotherthreetranslatorsadoptverbslike“held”or“attending”forsupplements.春风桃李花开，秋雨梧桐叶落。Glies:Inspringamidtheflowersofthepeachandplum.Inautumnrainswhentheleavesofthewutundfall?Fletcher:Whenplumandpeachthespringrenewed,andblossomsopenedwell.Yang:Thepeachandplumtreesblossomedagain.Planeleavesfellintheautumnrains.Xu:Orwheninvernalbreezewerepeachandplumfull-blown;orwheninautumnrainparasolleaveswereshed?Thissentenceiscomposedinantitheticalparallelism.WhenitistranslatedintoEnglish,notonlysyntaxpatternsbutalsoantithesisshouldbetakenintoconsideration.Apparently,Fletcherdoesnottranslateitintoparallelsandhisrelativelysimple-64-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegreeinterpretationswouldbeeasilyacceptedbytargetreaders.Apartformthat,thereisahiddenmeaninginthispoeticline.Itisthespringwindthathelpsflowersgetblossomanditistheautumnrainthatbeatstheleavestogetfallen.Inthissense,certainverbshavebeenomitted.BothGliesandXuutilizeparallelsandtranslatethenouns“春风”and“秋雨”intoadverbsoftimelike“inspring”and“inautumn”.Bycontrast,Yang’stranslationdoesnotadoptparallelsforhistranslation,becausethepoemcreatedbyYangHsien-yiisafreeverse.C.PassiveSentenceForthistypeofsentences,verbsinvolvingpassiveconnotationsareconcentratedon.姊妹弟兄皆列土Glies:Hersistersandherbrothers,oneandall,wereraisedtotherankofnobles.Fletcher:Herbrothersandsisterswererankedonstepsoffame.Yang:Allhersistersandbrothersbecamenobleswithfiefs.Xu:Allhersistersandbrothersreceivedrankandfief.Inthisexample,“列土”wasactuallyaborrowedwordfrom“裂土”,indicatingthatalltherelativesofLadyYanghadbeenentitledwithofficialpositionsandbecameroyals.Literally,“列土”servesasanoun.However,inessence,itfunctionsasaverb,suggestingthepassiverelationsbetweenthemonarchandLadyYang’sfamilies.Inthiscase,bothGliesandFletchertranslateitintopassivesentences.Bycontrast,YangHsien-yiandXuYuanchongprefertoadoptpositiveverbs,becauseitwouldbeaglorytogetahighersocialpositionforthewholefamilyinancientChina.宛转峨眉马前死Glies:Untilsheofthemoth-eyebrowsperishesinsightofall.Fletcher:Tillthosepersuasiveeyebrowsbeforethechargersfall.-65-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegreeYang:Soshewiththemoth-likeeyebrowswaskilledbeforehishorses.Xu:UntiltheLadyYangwaskilledbeforethesteed.Inthisexample,“宛转峨眉”referredtoLadyYang.Aftertherebellion,themonarchandhisconcubinehadtofleeawayoutofthecapital.ThetroopwouldnotmoveforwardunlessLadyYangwaskilled.Inthissense,“死”indicatedthattheheroinehadnochoicebuttodie.Accordingtotherecordofhistory,LadyYangwasfinallyforcedtocommitthesuicideinfrontoftroops.Gliesuses“perishes”toindicateherdeathinsteadofmentioninganywordaboutkillings.Besides,thesamesituationgoestoFletcher’stranslation.Incomparison,bothYangandXuusepassivevoicestotranslatetheverb“死”directly.What’smore,onlyXuYuanchongovertlypointsoutthepersonwhohasbeenkilledisLadyYang.为感君王辗转思Glies:Anxioustorelievethefrettingmindofhissovereign.Fletcher:InpityforthePrince’sgrief,thatneverlethimrest.Yang:Movedbytheemperor’slongingforher.Xu:Movedbythemonarch’syearningforthedepartedfair.Inthisexample,themagicianwasmovedbythemonarchwhoneverstoppedmissinghislover.“为感”couldbeinterpretedas“beingmoved”.Inthiscase,GliesandFletcheragainavoidusingpassivewordsfortheirtranslations.However,bothYangHsien-yiandXuYuanchonguse“movedby”todemonstratethelogicalrelations.4.1.3Translator’sStyleManifestedatTextualLevelAfterexploringthetranslator’sstyleonthesyntax,theresearchcontinuestohavefurtherstudiesonthetextuallevel.Thediscussionsbelowshallbecarriedoutfromperspectivesoftextcoherence,aswellasrhythmandrhymes.-66-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegree4.1.3.1FeaturesReflectedinTextCoherenceInthefieldoflinguistics,thedistinctionbetweenEnglishandChinesearemainlyfeaturedwithparataxis(意合)andhypotaxis(形合).AccordingtoHalliday(1976),Chineseismainlyparatactic.Inotherwords,Chineseisalanguageinwhichthelogicalmeaningofagroupofsentencesisnotpresentedbytheuseofconnectives,instead,conveyedthroughthecontext.Besides,Chineseinvolvesfewcohesivetiesandattachesgreatimportancetocovertcoherence(隐性连贯)，andcontextualmeanings.Englishismainlyhypotactic.Inotherwords,Englishisalanguageinwhichthelogicalmeaningofagroupofsentencesisconveyedbyusingexternalmethods,suchasinsertingconnectivesinbetween.Variouskindsofcohesivetiesareappliedtomaketheovertcoherence(显性连贯).Tosumup,theparataxisofChineseandhypotaxisofEnglisharetwodifferentcharacteristics,providinganimportantviewforC-Etranslationanalysis.“ThehypotaxisofEnglishisusuallyreflectedbyallkindsofrelatives,connectives,prepositions,particlephrases,etc.”(Halliday,1976).InthesourcetextofChangHenGe,thoughnoclearconnectivehasbeenemployedtoindicatelogicalrelations,readersstillcouldunderstandthegrammaticalmeaningswithinlines.However,whentranslatingthepoemintoEnglish,translatorsarerequiredtoaddcertainovertconnectiveslike“and,but,since,if,or”tostatelogicalrelations.Table4-11displaysthestatisticsofconjunctions.Table4-12exhibitsthestatisticsofrelatedconnectivesthatconnectclauses.Figure4-6istheircorrespondingbarchart.-67-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegreeTable4-11StatisticsofConjunctionsItemYangXuGliesFletcherAlterativeConj.and34465649or1620nor0200for0100CasualConj.so2417TimeConj.then2235before1000AdversativeConj.yet0012but0275ExplanatoryConj.like7454although0122though4030ProgressiveConj.even3000still0100Total54698074Table4-12StatisticsofRelatedConnectivesItemYangXuGliesFletcheras2051if0101since0001that0003till0101when57410for0010where0210which0100while1000Total8121116-68-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegreeFigure4-6ScaleforConnectives100919090818070626050403020100YangXuGliesFletcherFromFigure4-6,itcanbeseenthatGlies(91)andFletcher(90)nearlygetthesamedataandtheybothrankonthetop.XuYuanchong(81)closelyfollowsthemandYangHsien-yi(62)ranksthelast.Firstofall,theabovedataindicatethatallthefourtranslationsdemonstratehighdegreesofovertcoherenceanditisinaccordwiththehypotacticfeatureofEnglishmentionedabove.Second,itcanbeseenthatGliesandFletcherattachmuchimportancetotheapplicationofconjunctions.Forthem,poeticimagesandhiddenstorybackgroundsinofChangHenGemightbedifficultfortargetreaderstounderstand.Besides,itisimpossibletousesimplesentencestructurestointerpretthepoemfortheircognitivelimitationstowardsChinese.Inthiscase,anumberofvariousconjunctionsareemployedtorelativeclausesandthelogicalrelationswithinsentences.Lastbutnotleast,Yangusesleastovertconnectives,whichontheothersideprovesthathissentencesstructuresarenotthatcomplex.Asmentionedabove,twoprominentsyntaxpatternsarefrequentlyusedinYang’sversion,namely,passivevoicesandadverbialswithpresentparticiples.Besides,Yang’saveragesentencelengthis-69-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegreenearly10wordsandtheoriginalChineseversioncontains7charactersineachline.Consideringthosetwofacets,Yang’stranslationmightbeaword-by-wordone.Englishisprominentinhypotaxis,butitdoesnotmeanthatthereisnocovertconnectivebetweensentences.InEnglish,punctuation,including“.”/“?”/“!”/“,”/“;”,areoftenadoptedascovertconnections.TaketranslationsofChangHenGeforillustration,thefirstthreepunctuationsoccasionallyappearattheendofsentences.Although“,”hasachancetoappearinsidethesentence,thesentencesaremostlyconnectedbyconjunctivewordsorphrases.Inthissense,only“;”islefttoserveasthecovertconjunctionwithinsentences.Thefrequencyof“;”canbecalculatedaccordingtothefollowingformula.Additionally,“——”isanotherrandomlyusedpunctuationwithinsentencesinChangHenGe,whichmayalsoberegardedasthecovertconjunction.Itscalculationmethodisthesameas“;”.Total";"Frequecyof";"100%(4)TotalSubclausesTable4-13demonstratesfrequenciesof“;”and“——”infourtranslationsandFigure4-7isthecorrespondingbarchart.Table4-13Statisticsof“;”and“——”ItemYangXuGliesFletcher“;”11171021“——”1020%18.9731.5821.8222.58-70-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegreeFigure4-7Scalefor“;”and“——”4031.583021.8222.5818.9720100YangXuGliesFletcherFromFigure4-7,itcanbeseenthatXu’sstatisticsofcovertcoherencetakesthehighestposition(31.58)andYang’sversionperformsthelowest(18.97).GliesandFletchernearlyachieveatthesamelevel.ThestatisticsofBPCis8%.Asmentionedabove,Englishisgenerallyfeaturedwithhypotaxis.BecausealltranslationsexhibitlargedisparitiesagainstBPC’sstatisticsintermsofcovertconnectives,twopointsmightbeproved.OneisthatthoughtranslatedtextsarestillwritteninEnglish,theircharacteristicsperforminginhypotaxisarenotthatoriginalcomparedwiththatofthetargetlanguagecorpus.TheotheristhatperformancesoftranslatorswithBritishbackgrounds,tosomedegree,usuallystayatthesamelevelandtheyarerelativelyclosertothelanguagehabitofEnglishpeople,likeYangHsien-yi&GladysYang,GliesaswellasFletcher.4.1.3.2FeaturesReflectedinRhymeandRhythmChenCaiyi(2008)definedthattherhymereferredtotherepetitionofacertainsyllablesincorrespondingpositions(Chen,2008,p.29).Besides,concerningthepositionofrhyming,Chenputforwardthat“therearealliterations,endrhymesandinternalrhymes”(Chen,2008,p.29).Indetail,endrhymescontainperfectrhymesandimperfectrhymes.Furthermore,imperfectrhymescovertheassonancewhichonlyrhymesinvowelsandtheconsonancewhichonlyrhymesinconsonants.What’smore,-71-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegreetherearevisualrhymeswhichonlysharethesamespells.Withregardtotherhymescheme,itreferstothecombinationofrhymedlines,whichcanbedividedintothefixedpatternandtheregularpattern.“ThefixedpatternmainlycontainsSonnets,Spenserianstanza,etc.;theregularpatterninvolvesAA,AABB,ABABandABBA”(Chen,2008,p.49).Asisknown,classicalChinesepoemsaredistinctiveinrhymes,inwhichthelastwordinthelineshouldsharethesamephoneticsyllableswiththelastwordinanotherline.Besides,therhymeshighlydependonthesimpleorcompoundvowelsofaChinesesyllable,whichcanhelpstrengthenthebeautyinsound.Inthissense,whencomposingthepoem,Chinesepoetshavetopaymoreattentiontopickingupwordsthatsharethesamevowels.However,itisimpossibletomaintainthesamerhymesduringthetranslation.Inotherwords,Chinesepoemscannotrepeatitsrhymesduringthetransferencefromthesourcelanguagetothetargetlanguage.OnereasonisthatChinesepoemshavethoroughlydifferentrhymeschemesfromthoseinEnglish.AnotherreasonisthatChineseaboundsinhomophones,sothatitwouldbemucheasierforChinesepoetstorealizethesamerhymeattheendoflinesthroughoutthepoemwhichisratherdifficultforEnglish.Asmentionedabove,ChangHenGeisuniqueinrhymeandrhythm.ThereisnofixedrhymeandrhythmpatterninGlies’sproseandYangHsien-yi’sfreeverse.Inthiscase,metricaltranslationsfromFletcherandXuYuanchongaremainlytobediscussed.Inthepresentresearch,therearetotally120poeticlinesinChangHenGe,withsevencharactersineachline.BothFletcherandXuYuanchongcompose120lineswhicharethesameastheChineseversion.However,theirrhymeschemesandtypesofrhymesexploreslightdifferences.ForXuYuanchong,generallyspeaking,the“AABB”ismainlyadoptedforthe-72-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegreescheme,butthe“ABAB”alsohasbeenutilizedintwoparts,namely,Line49-Line74andLine99-Line100.HisflexibleutilizationsofrhymeschemesindicatethatXuisexperiencedinmetricaltranslating.Apartfromthat,withregardtoendrhymes,Xupreferstotaketheperfectrhymeswiththeassonanceasthesupplement.Besides,XuYuanchongalsoappliesalliterationsandinternalrhymesinhistranslation.Examplesaredemonstratedasfollows.遂令天下父母心，不重生男重生女。Tothegriefofthefathersandmotherswho’drathergivebirth,Toafairmaidenthananysononearth.Inthisexample,itcanbeseenthat“birth/bə:θ/”and“earth/ə:θ/”sharethesamevowelandthesameconsonant,whichrepresentsapairofperfectrhymes.君臣相顾尽沾衣，东望都门信马归。Helookedartministerswithtearshisrobewaswet;Theyrodeeasttothecapital,butwithloosenrein.Inthisexample,“with/was/wet”inthefirstlineaswellas“rode/rein”inthesecondlinedisplayinternalrhymes.Besides,“wet/wet/”and“rein/ren/”showapairofassonance.天生丽质难自弃，一朝选在君王侧。Endowedwithnaturalbeautytoohardtohide,Onedayshestoodselectedforthemonarch’sside.Inthisexample,“hard/hide”and“she/stood/selected/side”representtheinternalrhymes.Inaddition,“hide/haid/”and“side/said/”displayapairofperfectrhymes.ForFletcher,the“AABB”rhymeschemehasbeenutilizedthroughouthispoem.Inaddition,healsoappliesalliterationsandinternalrhymes.Whenitcomestotheendrhyme,Fletcherdemonstratesacomprehensiveuseofassonance,visualrhymesand-73-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegreeperfectrhymes.Examplesareextractedfromhistranslationforanalysis.回眸一笑百媚生，六宫粉黛无颜色。Ifshebutturnedhersmiling,ahundredloveswereborn.Therearenoarts,nograces,butbyherlookedforlorn.Inthisexample,“she/smiling”inthefirstlineisapairofinternalrhymesandthesameconditiongoestothe“noartsandnograces”.Besides,“born/bɔ:n/”and“lorn/lɔ:n/”areperfectrhymes.峨眉山下少人行，旌旗无光日色暮。BelowgreatOmiMountainbutrarelypeoplego,Anddimlyfallsthesunlight;anddullthebannersflow.Inthisexample,“great/go”inthefirstlineaswellas“dimly/dull”inthesecondlinedisplayinternalrhymes.Inaddition,“go/flow”exhibitsapairofassonance.Besides,theandsinthesecondlinedemonstrateapairofalliterations.中有一人字太真，雪肤花貌参差是。Andamongthem,T’ai-chencalled,thenalltherestmoreare,Sowhiteherskin,sosweetherface,nonecouldwithhercompare.Inthisexample,“and/among/all/are”aswellas“sowhite/sosweet”and“among/all”displayalliterations.Inaddition,“them/T’ai-chen’/then”inthefirstlineand“skin/so/sweet”aswellas“her/her”inthesecondlineexhibitinternalrhymes.Apartfromthat,though“are”seemstosharethesamespellswiththatofcompare,thepronunciationsaredifferent.Thisisthevisualrhyme.Asregardtotherhythm,ChineseandEnglishexplorehugedifferences.ThebasicrhythminclassicalChineseisusuallycarriedoutbythelevelandobliquetones(平仄).Besides,semanticpausesofwordsfurtherstrengthentherhythmofChinese.Inotherwords,therhythminChinesecanbestatedasrisingandfallingincadence(抑扬顿挫).-74-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegreeIntheChineseversionofChangHenGe,levelandobliquetonesarealternatelyappliedthroughoutthepoem.Bycontrast,rhythmdependsonthetypeoffoot(音步)andthenumberoffeetinEnglish.“Thefootiscomprisedbysyllablesandphones(音素)consistofthesyllable”(Chen,2008.p.3).ThetypeoffootinEnglishisdemonstratedinTable4-14andthetableisextractedfromthefourthpageofTheRhythmandTypesofEnglishPoetry.Table4-14TypeofFootTypeAdj.Examples(Capitallettersarestressedsyllables)pyrrhicpyrrbicinaiambiambicenGAGEtrocheetrochaicALwaysspondeespondaicHOTSTUFFtribrachtribrachicandintheanapaestanapaesticontheWAYamphibrachamphibrachiceTERnalbacciusbachiactheWHOLEDAYdactyldactylicWANderingcreticcreticPIECEofCAKEAccordingtoTable4-14,itcanbeseenthatfootisthecombinationofstressedsyllablesandunstressedsyllables.ThroughanalysesofFletcher’stranslation,itcanbeconcludedthatpoeticlinesinFletcher’sversiondonotexhibitregularrhythmpatterns.ForXuYuanchong,severalverses(诗节)fromhistranslationareextractedfordiscussions.Inthefollowinganalysis,“︱”isusedtodividefootand“/”marksthestressedsyllablesand“_”isforunstressedsyllables.蜀江水碧蜀山青，圣主朝朝暮暮情。行宫见月伤心色，夜雨闻铃肠断声。Onwes︱ternwa︱tersblue︱andwes︱ternmoun︱tainsgreen,_/_/_/_/_/_/Themo︱narch’sheart︱wasdai︱lygnawed︱bysor︱rowkeen._/_///_/_/_/-75-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegreeThemoon︱viewedfrom︱histent︱sheda︱soul-sear︱inglight,_//__//_//_/Thebells︱heardin︱nightrain︱madea︱heart-rend︱ingsound._//__//_//_/七月七日长生殿，夜半无人私语时。在天愿作比翼鸟，在地愿为连理枝。天长地久有时尽，此恨绵绵无绝期。Onse︱venthday︱ofse︱venthmoon︱whennone︱wasnear,_/_/_/_/_/_/Atmid︱nightin︱LongLife︱Hallhe︱whispered︱inher︱ear,_/__///_/___/“Onhigh,︱we’dbe︱twolove︱birdsfly︱ingwing︱towing;_/_/_/_/_/_/Onearth,︱twotrees︱withbran︱chestwined︱fromspring︱tospring.”_/_/_/_/_/_/Thebound︱lesssky︱andend︱lessearth︱maypass︱away,_/_/_/_/_/_/Butthis︱vowun︱fulfilled︱willbe︱regrett︱edfor︱aye./_/__//__/__/ItcanbeseenthatmostpoeticlinesinXu’sversioninvolvesixfeet,whicharedefinedasthe“hexameter(六音步行)”(Chen,2008.p.24).Besides,mostfeetkeeptheorderwhichfirstcomewithunstressedsyllablesandthencomethestressedsyllables.AccordingtoTable4-14,onlytheiamb(抑扬格)fitsthistype.Chen(2008)pointedoutthat“thefootofEnglishpoemsisnotalwaysinvariableandthephenomenonofvariation(拗变)incertainstanzasisquitecommon”(p.6).Fortranslatedpoems,thevariationsthatappearintheversewillbemorethanthoseintheoriginalEnglishpoems.Inthissense,thoughseveralpyrrhic(抑抑格),trochee(扬抑格)andspondee(扬扬格)canbefoundintheaboveanalysis,mostfeetstillfitthetypeofiamb(抑扬格).Insum,therhythmofXuYuanchong’stranslationisiambichexameter(抑扬格六音步).4.1.4SectionReviewInthissection,accordingtodatastatisticsandqualitativeanalyses,itcanbefound-76-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegreethattranslatorsdemonstratedistinctivestylesinthreelevels.Glies’stranslationhasbeeninfluencedbyChinesecultureandhisproseisinformative.Theliteraltranslationplaysanimportantroleinhisversionandfreetranslationsaswellastransliterationsaretakenassupplements.Incomparison,Fletcherconcernsmuchabouttheacceptanceoftargetreaders.Besides,hisstyleismainlyorientedbythetargetlanguage,withtheliteraltranslationastheleadingtranslationskillandwiththegeneralizationperformingasthesupplement.AnotherimportantpointisthatFletcheradoptsthemetricalstyleforhistranslationwithendrhymesineverytwolines.YangHsien-yiandGladysYangattempttomaintainneutralityintheprocessofthetranslation.Theirstyleisalsofeaturedwiththeliteraltranslation,withotherskillsasreplenishments.AstoXuYuanchong,hisstyleismuchclosertothesourcelanguagecultureandhispoemisprominentinmetricaltranslationwiththeliberaltranslationmainlyemployed.4.2PossibleReasonsforTranslator’sStyleIntheabovesection,itisfoundthatfourtranslatorsexhibitdistinctivestylesconcerningtheirperformancesinlexical,syntacticandtextuallevels.Thispartstrivestofindoutpossibleexplanationsaccountingfortheirstylesfromtwoaspects,namely,thetranslationenvironmentaswellasculturalbackgroundsandtranslationorientations.4.2.1TranslationEnvironmentAmericanlinguistLawrenceVenuti(1995)firstcameupwithtwoconcepts“domestication(归化)andforeignization(异化)”todescribegeneralstrategiesadoptedfortranslating.Inhisopinion,thedomesticationaimstokeeptheoriginalstyleofthesourcelanguagetextandletthereadergooutoftheircomfortzonestoapproachcontextsfromdifferentcultures(Venuti,1995,p.19).Onthecontrary,theforeignizationtakesthereaders’acceptanceintoconsiderationandstrivestosimplifyculture-loaded-77-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegreepartsduringtheprocessofthetranslationandletthetranslatorconcerntheconvenienceofreaders(ibid,pp.19-20).Besides,Venutialsopointedoutthatthemainstreamofwesterncultureshasbeenaccustomedtoadoptingforeignizationsandisobsessedwithtranslationseasilyunderstoodbyreaders(ibid,p.15).Inotherwords,theforeignizationhasalwaysperformedasaleadingroleinthewestandtranslatorsdemonstrateasenseofinvisibilityintranslation.Certainly,theliberaltranslation(freetranslation)andtheliteraltranslation(word-by-wordtranslation)mentionedabovecannotdirectlyequaltotheconceptsofdomesticationsandforeignizations.Thedifferenceisthattheliberaltranslationandtheliteraltranslationareakindoftranslationskillsfocusingonthelinguisticaspectsanddomesticationsandforeignizationsextendtheresearchingscopetotheculturallevelswhichareconnectedwithpolitics,cultures,arts,etc.AsChambers(1995,iiv)discussedthat“aliteraltranslationoraword-by-wordtranslationisonewhichfollowsthewordsoftheoriginalexactlywithoutconcerningthegeneralmeaningandaliberaltranslationorasense-for-sensetranslationexpressesthesenseoftheoriginalwordswithoutbeingabsolutelyexact”.Accordingtotheaboveanalysis,itcanbeseenthatforeignizationsandtheliteraltranslationarebothorientedbythetargetlanguagecultureanddomesticationsaswellastheliberaltranslationaregroundedbythesourcelanguageculture.Asmentionedabove,theforeignization,tosomeextent,generalizestheculture-loadedpartsandprovidestranslationsthatfitthelanguagehabitofnativepeopleinthetargetcultureandthesameconditiongoestotheliteraltranslation.Venutimentionedthat“thiskindofstrategywasquitepopularinwesternsociety,becauseitfitthemainstreamofwesternsocialvalues”(ibid,p.15).Inthepresentthesis,bothGliesandFletcherareBritishscholars.ThefindingsobtainedfromtheaboveresearchdiscoverthatFletchermainlyadoptstheliteral-78-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegreetranslationandhisstyleisorientedbythetargetlanguageculture.Obviously,Fletcher’stranslationstylehasbeeneffectivelyinfluencedbythewesterntranslationenvironmentatthattime,whichaimstodecreasethedifficultiesofthetranslationandconcernstheacceptanceoftargetreaders.ForGlies,thoughhealsomainlyutilizestheliteraltranslationskills,histranslationstylehasbeenaffectedbythesourcelanguageculture.Besides,exceptinfluencesfromtranslationstrategies,therearesomeotheraspectsthatshouldbeconsideredwhichcontributetotheirdifferentstyles.HerbertGlieswasaBritishsinologistandhewasonceemployedasaBritishdiplomatinChinaduringtheSecondOpiumWar.From1867to1892,GlieshadbeeninChinafornearly26years,duringwhichhekeptcollectingChineseballadsandpoemsandtranslatedthemintoEnglish.Severalyearsafterhewassentback,hetranslatedChangHenGearound1901.ThegoldenageofhislifewasspentinChina,whichcertainlyhadcausedeffectsonhistranslationstyle.DuringtheQingDynasty,theemperorkeptadvocatingthepolicyof“cuttingoffChinafromtheoutsideworld”,whichalsobroughtthetranslationenvironmentinChinatobeconventional.AccordingtotheopinionfromProf.SunZhili(2002),domesticationshadalwaysplayedaleadingcharacterintranslatingChina’sliteraturesfrom1870sto1970sbecauseoftheconservativeenvironmentduringthatperiod.Inthissense,GliesspentonethirdofhislifeinChinaandhistranslationstyle,tosomedegree,wasaffectedbythetranslationenvironmentofChinaduringthatperiod.HestrivedtokeephistranslationclosetotheChineseculture.However,hisChinesewasnotthatexcellenttounderstandclassicalpoemswithspecifictermsinvolvedlikeChangHenGewhichledhimtomainlyadopttheword-by-wordtranslationaswellastoutilizetransliterationsfortranslatingancientplaces.Intheprocessofthetranslation,Gliestriedtokeepthetranslationsharingthesameorderwiththeoriginalpoem.Besides,hishighType/TokenRationandlexical-79-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegreedensitiesindicatedthathehadadoptedmanylexiconsthatseldomappearedindailylanguagesinthetargetculture.Apartfromthat,westernerswereusedtotakingprosewhentranslatingclassicalChineseliteratures.Glies,asthefirstpersontranslatingChangHenGe,hadnoprecedentasexamplestofollow,sothatheadoptedtheconventionalcustomtotranslatethispoemasaprose.That’swhyGlies’sversionwasinformativeandrankedhighintheperformanceofaveragesentencelength.Besides,aproseconcentratedmuchonthenarrationofthestory,sothatGliesdividedplotsofChangHenGeintoseveralpartsforbetterreproducingthestory.ForFletcher,thoughhealsoservedasaBritishdiplomatinChinaduringtheSecondOpiumWar,his8-yearemploymentwasnotthatlongcomparedwiththatofGlies.Besides,theplacethatheworkedinChinawasHaiko,wherelocaldialectstooktheleadingsocialpositioninsteadofthemandarin.What’smore,FletchercametoChinaduringthelateoftheSecondOpiumWar,whenChinagraduallysteppedintothesemi-colonialandsemi-feudalperiod.ThecostalareasaroundChinahadlargelybeenexposedtowesterncultures.Inthissense,Fletcher’sChinesefirstlywasnotgoodenoughtotranslatethisclassicalChinesepoem,sothathegeneralizedculture-loadedpartstosimplifyhislanguages.Besides,hehadgreatlybeenaffectedbytheForeignizationtendencyinthewest,evenwhenhewasemployedinChina.Hegenerallytooktheword-by-wordtranslationandkepthisstyleclosetotargetreaders.AnotherpointisthatFletchertookthemetricalstyleforthetranslation,whichindicatedthatFletcherhadpaidattentiontokeeptheformascohesiveastheoriginalpoem.That’swhyhistranslationwasverypopularinwesternsocieties,coveringtheGreatBritain,AmericaaswellasJapan,becausehistranslationofChangHenGewaspithyandcouldbeeasilyunderstoodbywesternaudiences.InSunZhili’sopinion,thedomesticationhasgreatlyaffectedthetranslationinthe-80-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegreemodernhistoryofChina.However,sincethereformandopeningupduringthelate1970s,abalancebetweenthedomesticationandtheforeignizationgraduallyhasemerged.Domesticationhadundergoneadecline,thoughitwasstillpowerful.YangHsien-yitranslatedChangHenGearound1978,whichexactlybelongedtothisperiod.Besides,YangHsien-yiandhiswifeGladysYangworkedfortheNationalTranslationInstitutionheldbythegovernmentofNewChinaatthattime,sothattheirstylewasgreatlyinfluencedbythepoliticswhichbroughtrigidnesstotheirtranslation.Ononehand,YangHsien-yiandhisBritishwifetriedtomaketheirtranslationfitthemainstreaminChinaconcerningpoliticalaspectsaswellastranslationenvironment.Ontheotherhand,theirtranslationinvolvedChineseandEnglishbilingualcultures,sothatYang’stranslationhasnotdemonstratedexplicitfeaturestowardsbeingeithertarget-language-orientedorsource-language-oriented.ThediscussionsintheabovesectionhaspointedoutthatYangHsien-yiandGladysYangstrivetomaintainneutralityintheprocessofthetranslationwithlotsofpassivevoicesused,whichagainprovesthispoint.AsforXuYuanchong,hetranslatedChangHenGeduringthe1980s.WithregardtothetranslationenvironmentinChinaatthattime,itcanbeseenthatXumainlyinsistedontheliberaltranslation.Hestrictlytranslatedthepoemintometricalstylesandendowedthepoemwithrhythms,whichwascloselyattachedtotheoriginalstyleofthepoem.However,withthedomesticreformgettingintensified,thetranslationenvironmentrelativelygotflexibleinChina.Xualsoadoptedothertranslationskillstodealwiththetranslationsoastodeliverpoeticbeautiesinsound,formandsense.Ononehand,XusavedtheoriginalculturalflavorofChina.Ontheotherhand,hisflexiblegrammaticalpatternsindicatedthathealsohadconcernedthereaders’acceptability.-81-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegree4.2.2CulturalBackgroundsandTranslationOrientationsTranslators’culturalbackgroundsandtheircorrespondingtranslationorientationsaresignificantforanalyzingthetranslator’sstyleofChangHenGe.Incurrentcases,ithasbeenconcludedthatGliesandFletchershareseveralsamestyles,buttheystillholdsomeindividualexclusivefeatures.Figure4-8demonstratesthelifespanofGliesandFletcherforfurtherillustrations.Figure4-8LifespanofGliesandFletcherHerbertGliesW.J.B.FletcherItcanbeseenthatGliesexperiencedthedominationoftheVictorianAgeandthePostVictorianAgeduringthelate19thcenturytotheearly20thcentury.Hewasamiddle-classmemberformtheBritishbourgeoisieandthenwassenttoChinaasacolonialdiplomat.Besides,beforehewenttoChina,hehadalreadybeenarenownedsinologistathome.Inthissense,withtheroyalclassbackgroundandgoodeducations,Gliestendedtotranslatewordsrelatedto“汉皇”and“圣主”into“HisImperialMajesty”and“HisMajesty”,whichfullyindicatedhissocialbackgroundssoastofit-82-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegreethelanguagehabitofBritishpeople.Besides,theideologicaltrendsduringthe19thcenturyandthefirsthalfofthe20thcenturywererealismandmodernism,thethoughtsofwhichweretocriticizedegradedsocialmoralitiesaswellastofocusontheinwardworldofindividuals.Asaresult,psychologicaltimewasmoresignificantthanrealistictimeinliteratures.Litterateurspreferredtoinvolveseveraltensesintheirworksandadvocatedtobreakthestrictrhythmandrhymemodelforpoemsaffectedbytheromanticism.Glieswasdeeplyinfluencedbythetrendsofthoughtsduringthatperiod,sothatheutilizedthepresenttenseandthepasttensealternatelyinhistranslation.Hefocusedmuchontheemotionsofcharacters,sothatheadopteddialoguesforsomeinterpretationsandappliedmanyemotionallexiconssoastobringconcentrationsonindividualfeelings.Apartfromthat,thoughGlieshadbeeninChinafornearly26years,hestillfailedtounderstandseveralculture-loadedwordsaswellassomeclassicalallusions.What’smore,“GliesoncemodifiedaMandarinChineseRomanizationsystem,resultinginthewidelyknownWade-GliesChineseRomanizationSystem”(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbert_Giles).Thiswasakindofstrategytodealwithwordsthatwereimpossibletofindcorrespondingtranslationsandphonetictranscriptionsweremainlyadopted.That’swhyGlieshasmostlytranslatedancientplacesviacombiningsoundswithsyllables.AccordingtoFigure4-8,FletcheralsoexperiencedthedominationoftheQueenVictoria,buthislifewasaffectedmuchbythethoughtsofmodernismblossomingafterthelate19thcentury.LikeGlies,healsoconcentratedoninwarddescriptionsofcharactersviatheutilizationofdialogues.However,becauseoftheinfluencesfrommodernism,heattachedmoreimportancetotherealisticacceptance,thatis,thereaders’acceptability.Hedemonstratedalowlexicalvariationaswellasalowlexicaldensity.Besides,healsoomittedsomeculture-loadedpartsofChangHenGeanddisplayeda-83-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegreehighdegreeofovertcohesions.Basedontheseconsiderations,itcanbeseenthatFletcherstrivedtodecreasethedifficultindexofhisworksoastoletwesternreadersunderstandthepoembetter.What’smore,FletcheralsoutilizedmanyphonetictranscriptionsfortranslatingancientplacesfollowingthesystemestablishedbyGliesmentionedabove.IthastobepointedoutthatFletcher’sChinesewaslimited,whichmoreorlesshadinfluencedhistranslator’sstyle.Thetranslator’sstyleofYangHsien-yiandGladysYanginvolvesbilingualculturesandtheirstylehasbeenaffectedbyseveralaspects.Figure4-9demonstratesthelifespanofYangHsien-yi.Figure4-9LifespanofYangHsien-yiWhenYangHsien-yiwasyoung,hestudiedBritishliteratureinOxfordUniversity,duringwhichhemethiswifeGladys.AftertheAnti-JapaneseWar,thenewChinasteppedintotheperiodofPeopleWarofRebellion.Thecouplewasdeterminedtocomebacktohelpwiththedevelopmentofthehometown.Atthattime,translationsinChinawereconfinedtotranslatingoverseasliteraturesintoChina,butlocalclassicsofChinawereseldomspreadabroad.AstranslationsofclassicalChineseliteraturedemandedgoodcomprehensionsofbothChineseandEnglish,otherwiseclassicalallusionsaswellasspecifiedtermscouldnotbeunderstoodbywesterners.YangHsien-yiandGladys-84-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegreewerethenemployedbytheNationalTranslationInstitutionheldbythegovernmentandtheirmissionwastotranslateclassicsofChina.Tosomedegree,theirtranslationsservedforthepolitics,whichdeterminedtheirstyletobeloyaltotheoriginalworkaswellastobeclearwritings.InthetranslationofChangHenGe,YangHsien-yistrictlyobeyedtheEnglishgrammaticalrulesandstrivedtokeepaneutralidentityduringtheprocessofthetranslationviautilizinglotsofpassivevoicesaswellaswithfewemotionalwordsinvolved.Besides,theinfluenceofpoliticsweakenedthepoeticbeautyoftheirtranslation.What’smore,becauseofthecooperationwithhisBritishwife,YangHsien-yialsogeneralizedseveralpartsthatacquiredgoodknowledgeofChinesesoastomakehistranslationacceptedbyreaders.Meanwhile,withthecombinationofbilingualcultures,YangHsien-yididnotdisplayovertfeaturesintheperformanceoftextualcohesions.XuYuanchongisarenownedtranslatoraswellasascholarinChina,whogrewupinChinaandhasreceivedgenuineChineseeducations.AsaChinese,heisdeterminedtopublicizeChineseliteraturestotheworld.InaninterviewtakenbyChinaNationalNewsonline,henotedthatChinesealwaysunderestimatedourowntranslationstandardsandonlyknewthatweshouldlearnfromthewest.HethoughthatChinesecouldsurpasswesterntranslationswithourownsubjectivitiesfullyexerted.Besides,XuYuanchongbelievedthattheconceptoffunctionalequivalenceinthewestwasimpracticalfortranslatingChineseworks,sothatheinsistedontranslatingthebeautyaswellasthemeaningoftheworkinsteadofsolelytranslatingtheliteralmeaning.Inaddition,Xulargelyutilizeshis“ThreeBeautyPrinciple”forhistranslations,whichis“beautyinsound,beautyinformandbeautyinsense”(Xu,1979).Figure4-10demonstratesthelifespanofXuYuanchongforfurtherdiscussions.-85-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegreeFigure4-10LifespanofXuYuanchongAccordingtoFigure4-10,itcanbeseenthatXuYuanchongoncelivedinunrestexperiencingwarsandtheCulturalRevolution.Besides,hehaseverstudiedoverseas,sothathehasgoodfoundationsofbothEnglishandFrench.Besides,XucompletedMaoZedong’spoemswiththeutilizationofmetricalstyles,whichhasaffectedhislattertranslationlife.ThereasonwhyXuYuanchongformallystartedhistranslationcareerafterthereformandopeningupisthathehassufferedfrompoliticalprosecutionscontinually.Whenitcametothe1980s,Xu’slifesteppedintoatimeofpeace,duringwhichhetranslatedChangHenGe.Affectedbyhistranslatingbeliefandhistranslationprinciples,XuYuanchongstrivedtodeliverthepoeticmeaningsandmeanwhiletorepresentrhymesinhistranslation.Hencethenumberofpoeticlinesandtheaveragesentencelengthinhisversiontooktheclosestdistancetotheoriginalpoem,whichkepthistranslationcohesivewiththeChinesepoeminform.Besides,Xuinsistedonhismetricaltranslation.Heutilizedstrictendrhymesandrhythmpatternssoastoreproducethebeautyinsound.What’smore,heappliedseveraltranslationskillsflexiblytodealwiththetranslationofculture-loadedparts,whichkeptthepoemcohesiveinthesenseofbeauty.Inaword,XuYuanchongtriedtosavetheoriginalculturalflavorsofChangHenGe.-86-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegree4.2.3SectionReviewInthissection,twofactorsareelaboratedtoaccountfordifferentstylesoftranslators.Itcanbeeseenthatthetranslator’sstyleisaffectedbythetranslationenvironmentaswellculturalbackgroundsandtranslationorientations.-87-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegreeChapter5ConclusionsChapter5summarizesmajorfindingsofthepresentresearchandpointsoutlimitationsandmakesexpectationsforfuturestudies.5.1SummaryofMajorFindingsThisthesisconductsaresearchonthetranslator’sstyleofChangHenGefromperspectivesoflexical,syntacticandtextuallevels.Thefindingsoftheirstylesincludedistinctivelinguisticfeatures,differenttranslationskills,languagepreferencesaswellaspossiblereasonsthataccountfortheirstyles.Thesummariesarestatedasfollows.First,withregardtolexicons,fourtranslatorsexploreapparentdistinctions.ForGlies,histranslationperformsawiderangeoflexicalvariationsandahighdegreeoflexicaldensities,which,tosomeextent,indicatingthathistranslationdeliversmoreinformation.Besides,hisworklargelyutilizestheliteraltranslation,assistedbythefreetranslationandthetransliteration.Inaddition,Glies’stranslationstyletendstobeorientedbythesourcelanguage.Bycontrast,parameterslikelexicalvariationsandlexicaldensitiesinFletcher’stranslationreachcloselytothoseoftargetlanguages,sothathisstyletendstobeorientedbythetargetlanguage.Moreover,thelexicallengthinhisversionisrelativelyshortandheconsidersmuchaboutthereaders’acceptanceviadecreasingdifficultdegreesofhistranslation.What’smore,Fletcher’sworktakestheword-by-wordtranslationasthemainstrategy,assistedbythetransliterationandreplenishedbythegeneralization.ForXuYuanchong,histranslationexploreslargerangesinlexicalvariationanddemonstratesahighdegreeoflexicaldensities.What’smore,Xupreferstodothetranslationaccordingtomeaningswiththeliteraltranslationandtransliterationassupplements.However,histranslationdemonstratesarelativelylowertype,whichsuggeststhathislanguageswouldberatherconcise.AsforYang-88-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegreeHsien-yiandGladysYang,theyareaccustomedtoremainingneutralintheprocessofthetranslationwithfewemotionalwordsadopted.Besides,passivepatternsandgerundstructuresarefrequentlyapplied.What’smore,theliteraltranslationapparentlyplaysanimportantrole,andthetransliterationandthegeneralizationarebothemployedassupplements.Second,findingsobtainedfromthesyntaxfurtherthecomparisonsofstylisticdistinctionsamongtranslatorsandsomediscoveriescomplywiththeclaimsstatedabove.BothGliesandFletcher,inthiscase,taketheliteraltranslationortheword-by-wordtranslationasthebasicstrategy.Besides,comparedwiththeothertwotranslators,Fletcher’sandGlies’stranslationsinvolvemorewordsinonesentenceandarecomposedwithrelativelyflexiblesyntaxpatterns,which,inconsequence,simplifytheunderstandingsofthisclassicalChinesepoem.ForXuYuanchong,hisaveragesentencelengthisclosesttothatoftheoriginalpoem.Thereasonwhyhecouldinvolveleastwordsinonesentenceisthathissentencesarenotstrictlyincompliancewiththegrammaticalrules.Besides,orientedbythesourcelanguageculture,Xuprefersliberaltranslationstoothertranslationskills.AsforYangHsien-yiandGladysYang,theirtranslationisstrictlyinaccordancewiththegrammaticalrules.Inaddition,theywouldliketogeneralizethetranslationofcertaincontentswhichshallacquireagoodknowledgeofChinesehistoricalbackgrounds.Third,onthetextuallevel,translatorsdisplaydifferentstylesintermsofcohesionsaswellasrhythmandrhymes.BothGlies’sandFletcher’stranslationsexhibithighdegreesofovertcohesions.Inotherwords,theirtranslationstylesrelativelyfitthehypotacticfeatureofEnglish.AsGlies’spoemisprose,sothatthereisnofixedpatterninrhythmandrhymes,andthesamegoestoYangHsien-yi’sfreeverse.Incomparison,Fletcher’stranslationisrhymedwiththeAABBpatternanditsendrhymescombinethe-89-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegreeusageofvisualrhymesandperfectrhymesaswellasassonances,butthereisnoregularrhythmpattern.Inaddition,YangHsien-yiandGladysYang’stranslationdoesnotdemonstrateapparenttendenciestowardsovertorcovertcohesions,whichmightreflectthattheircreationsareinfluencedbybilingualcultures.ForXuYuanchong,histranslationisprominentincovertcohesionscomparedwithothers.Besides,hiswork,generally,isrhymedwiththeAABBpattern,butsomelinesarepatternedwiththeABABform.Apartfromthat,withregardtotheendrhymes,perfectrhymestakealargeproportionandtheassonancealsohasbeenadopted.Moreover,XuYuanchongutilizestheiambichexameterastherhythmtypeforhistranslation.Tosumup,thetranslator’sstyleofChangHenGethathasbeendiscoveredinthisthesiscanbestatedintwoaspects,namely,universalstylesandindividualstyles.Universally,fourtranslationsallbelongtotextswithhighlexicaldensities,andshowlargerangesinlexicalvariationsandsharecommondistributionsofthelexicallength.Apartfromthat,theaveragesentencelengthinfourtranslationsalllandsonthemediumlevel.Moreover,accordingtothedata,fourtranslationsdemonstrateovertcohesions,whichsuggestthatthetranslatedlanguagesareinaccordancewiththehypotacticfeatureofEnglish.Individually,Glies’sprosaictranslationhasbeenaffectedbythesourcelanguageandisinformative.Theliteraltranslationplaysaleadingroleinhisversionandfreetranslationsaswellastransliterationsaretakenassupplements.Incomparison,Fletcherconcernstheacceptanceoftargetreadersviadownsizingthedifficultdegreeofhistranslation.Besides,hisstyleismainlyorientedbythetargetlanguage,withtheword-by-wordtranslationastheleadingstrategyandwiththegeneralizationperformingasthesupplement.AnotherimportantpointisthatFletcheradoptsthemetricalstylefortranslatingthepoemwithendrhymesineverytwolines.YangHsien-yiandGladysYang,astherepresentativeofSino-westerncooperation,-90-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegreeattempttomaintainneutralityintheprocessofthetranslation.Theirstyleisalsofeaturedwiththeliteraltranslation,withothersassupplements.AstoXuYuanchong,hisstyleismuchclosertothesourcelanguageculturesandhispoemisprominentinmetricaltranslationwithliberaltranslationmainlyadopted.Tworeasonsarethoughttoaccountfordifferentstylesoftranslators.Tobeginwith,translationenvironmentinthewestaswellasinChinahasprovidedbackclothforuniquestylesoftranslators.Foreignizationsperformedaleadingpositioninthewest,sothatGliesandFletcherchoosetotaketheliteraltranslationasthebasicskill.Bycontrast,domesticationsplayedanimportantroleintranslatingChineseliteraturesfrom1870sto1970s.SincethereformandopeningupofnewChina,therehasemergedabalancebetweenthedomesticationandtheforeignization.YangHsien-yitranslatedthepoemduringthisperiod,sothatYangHsien-yi’sstylehasnotdemonstratedovertfeaturestowardseitherbeingorientedbythesourcelanguagecultureorbythetargetlanguageculture.Inaddition,XuYuanchong’sstyleisguidedbythesourcelanguageculture,affectedbythedomestictranslationenvironment.Apartfromthat,culturalbackgroundsandtranslationorientationshaveexertedinfluencesuponthetranslator’sstyle.BothGliesandFletcherhaveexperiencedthedominationofQueenVictoriaandhavebeeninfluencedbytherealismandmodernism,sothattheyconcentratemuchontheinwarddescriptionsintheprocessofthetranslation.Besides,Fletcherhaspaidattentionstothereaders’acceptancetowardshistranslation.YangHsien-yiandGladysYanghavebeenaffectedbythepoliticsandtheirbilingualcultures,sothattheyseldominvolveemotionalwordsintheirversion.ForXuYuanchong,headvocatesthatwesternconceptoffunctionalequivalencecannotbeappliedinclassicalChinesetranslations,sothathestronglyinsistsonhis“ThreeBeautyPrinciple”.Guidedbyhisowntranslationorientations,XuYuanchongreproducesthe-91-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegreebeautyofsound,formandsenseinthetranslationofChangHenGe.5.2LimitationsandSuggestionsThisthesishasattainedachievementsinmainlytwoaspects.Inthefirstplace,asmentionedabove,noothershaveundertakensystematicquantitativeexplorationsonthetranslator’sstyleofclassicalChinesepoemssofar.Itmakesabreakthroughfromconventionalrelatedstudieswhicharemostlyconductedbyqualitativeanalyses.Thisthesisadoptsbothquantitativestatisticsandtextualanalysisasmethodologiesandfillsinrelatedresearchgapsviacarryingoutanempiricalstudyonthetranslator’sstyleofChangHenGe.Withtheestablishmentofabilingualparallelcorpusandamonolingualcomparablecorpus,findingsobtainedfromthepresentresearcharefarmoreconvincing.Apartfromthat,ithasenrichedthetheoreticalframeworkofcorpus-basedtranslationalstylisticsandhasbroadenedhorizonsoftranslationstudies.Thoughthetheoreticalclaimsofcorpus-basedtranslationalstylisticshaslaidfoundationsandhasprovidedguidanceforrelatedstudies,researchformulasinthesyntaxarestilllimitedinstatisticsofsentencelengthandanalysesonthetextuallevelsolelymaintainfiguresonthetextualcoherence.Inordertobetterdemonstratedistinctivestylesoftranslators,thisthesishasinitiativelyinvolvedcomparisonsofspecialsentencepatternsbetweenclassicalChinesepoemsandtheircorrespondingtranslationsonthesyntaxandhasintroducedanalysesofrhythmsandrhymesonthetextuallevel.Thougheffortshavebeengreatlymadetoguaranteethecompletionofthepresentthesis,therearestillaspectsrequiringfurtherimprovement.Onepointisthatthoughbothdatastatisticsandtextualanalysisareadoptedasmethodologies,subjectivitiesstillcannotbecompletelyavoided.Theotherpointisthatpossiblereasonsthatmightaccountforthetranslator’sstyleinthepresentthesisareanalyzedfromtranslationenvironment,culturalbackgroundsaswellastranslationprincipleswithspaceleftfor-92-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegreefurtherresearches.Inordertofillintheblankmentionedabove,thisthesisexpectsthatrelatedcomputersoftwareforlinguisticanalysiscanbedevelopedandfitinwithChineselanguagefeatures.Inaddition,morecomprehensivestudiesonexploringreasonsaccountingforthetranslator’sstyleareexpectedtobeconducted.Itisbelievedthatfuturestudiesonthetranslator’sstyleofclassicalChinesepoetryshallbemoreproductive.-93-
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HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegreetranslator-introducingandcommentingonBaker’snewresearchmethod.JournalofPLAUniversityForeignLanguages,3,54-57.]张中宇：（2005），《白居易〈长恨歌〉研究》，上海：中华书局。[Zhang,Zhongyu.(2005).ResearchonBaiJuyi’s“ChangHenGe”.Shanghai:PublishingHouseofChina.]张律、胡东平：《国内基于语料库的翻译研究的发展》载《嘉兴学院学报》2011年第2期，第95-99页。[Zhang,Lv&Hu,Dongping.(2011).Areviewofcorpus-basedtranslationinChina.JournalofJiaxingUniversity,2,95-99.]朱永生：（2001），《作为社会符号的语言：从社会角度诠释语言与意义》，北京：外语教学与研究出版社。[Zhu,Yongsheng.(2001).LanguageasSocialSemantic:TheSocialInterpretationofLanguageandMeaning.Beijing:ForeignLanguageTeachingandResearchPress.]-100-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegreeAppendix1SpecifiedTermsofAddressingTitlesChineseYang’sversionXu’sversionGlies’sversionFletcher’sversion汉皇HanemperorMonarchHisImperialMajestyLordofHan君王EmperorMonarchmonarchPrince圣主EmperorMonarchHismajestyHisbosom粉黛PowderedladiesFairfacePowderandpaintArts&gracesoftheharem天子HanEmperorMonarchHanHuangSonofHeaven侍儿MaidsAttendantsAttendantsAttendants道士PriestTaoistSorcererTaoistpriestWanderingpriest方士MagicianTaoistSorcererMagicianFang-shih阿监/EunuchsGuardiansEunuchs青娥Green-cladmaidsWaitingmaidsWomen仙子FairyfolkFairiesImmortalsFairies小玉XiaoyuWaitingmaidsWaiting-maidYoungattendants双城ShuangchengMistress-101-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegreeAppendix2SpecifiedTermsofSpecialSpotsChineseXu’sversionYang’sversionGlies’sversionFletcher’sversion临邛palaceLinqiongLin-ch’ungPluto’sshore华清池Warm-fountainHuaqingPalaceHua-ch’ingPoolHua-ch’ingLakepoolbaths骊宫LoftypalaceLiMountainloftyGorgeouspalaceLoftypalacePleasurepalace渔阳warYuyangFish-skinwarwar行宫Histent/(he)TravelingalongHistent马嵬坡TheslopeMaweiSlopeMa-weihillSlopeofMa-wei太液lakeTaiyePoolPavilionT’ai-yehLake未央hallWeiyangPalacePalacehall鸿都OthershoreChang’anHung-tuschool金阙PalacehallGiledpalaceGoldenpalaceFairydoor昭阳殿Palacewalls//Chao-yangCourt蓬莱宫FairylandhallsPenglaifairyisleTheBlestPalacesofFairyland长安capitalChang’anImperialcityChang-an长生殿LongLifeHallPalaceofEternalHallofImmortalityChang-shenghallYoungth-102-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegreeAppendix3SpecifiedTermsofSpecialSceneriesChineseXu’sversionYang’sversionGlies’sversionFletcher’sversion黄埃YellowdustYellowdustYellowsandYellowdust云栈SerpentineHighmountainCloud-cappedAbridgeofcloudplankpathpathsmountain-tops峨眉山EyebrowEmeiMountainsMountOmiOmiMountainsMountains旌旗RoyalstandardsTheirbannersThestandardsThebanners蜀江WesternwatersRiversSsuch’uanStreamsofSzechwanwaters蜀山WesternSichuanSsuch’uanhillsSzechwan’shillsmountainsMountains夜雨NightrainRainynightsEveningrainRainofnight芙蓉花LotusLotusbloomingThehibiscusLotus垂柳willowswillowsWillowsWillow-103-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegreeAppendix4SpecifiedTermsofSpecialCulture-loadedwordsXu’sversionYang’sversionGlies’sversionFletcher’sversion深闺InnerInherInnerapartmentsWithintheharemchambersbredchamber无颜色/Dulland//colorless凝脂HercreamyJade-likeBody/skinbody恩泽Monarch’sloveEmperor’sfavorGraciousfavorDesireandtendercare步摇Golden-headdreGoldhairpinHeaddressFootstepsringssedquivered金屋GoldenBowerMarblepavilionGoldenhouseSecretchamber凝丝竹SlowdanceandMingledwithTotheguitarandStringedmusic’sfirehearingflutedthestringsfluteorstringedsongandflutes霓裳羽“Songof“Rainbowand“Rainbowshirt“Sweetrainbow衣曲RainbowFeatherGarmentsandsongofBeautySkirtandCoatDance”FeatherJacket”inlove’sarms”ofFeathers”花钿hairpinFloral-patternedGoldornamentsOrnamentsgliedbox翠翘/GreenfeathersKingfisherwingsFeathers椒房PalacedeepSpicedchambersPepperChamberHerpalace孤灯挑ThelonelyThelonelylampLamp-wickburntThewholewickof尽lampwickWasnearlyouthislamphetrimmedburnedextinguishedout鸳鸯瓦LovebirdtilesPairedlove-birdDuck-and-drakeRoofwheretruetilestileslovedwelt霜华WithhoarfrostFrostyHoar-frostFrostflakes翡翠衾KingfisherquiltKingfisher-featheredKnigfatherHalcyon’scoverletquiltcoverlet-104-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegree连理枝TwotreesFlowingsprigsTreewithOnearthencloseofwithbranchesonthesamebranchbranchesus,twinedwhichtwineThefrailandmortalfromspringtogetherparttospring比翼鸟BetwolovingBirdsflyingOne-wingledIntheheavenabove,birdsflyingsidebysidebirdswewouldneverwingtowingdispart-105-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegreeAppendix5Tag-setTagDescription“Openingquotationmark”Closingquotationmark,Comma—Dash.Sentenceterminator:ColonorellipsisCDNumeral,cardinalDTDeterminerJJAdjectiveornumeral,ordinalJJRAdjective,comparativeJJSAdjective,superlativeMDModalauxiliaryNNPNoun,proper,singularNNPSNoun,proper,pluralNNNoun,common,massNNSNoun,common,pluralRBAdverbRBRAdverb,comparativeRBSAdverb,superlativeVBVerb,baseformVBDVerb,pasttenseVBGVerb,presentparticipleorgerundVBNVerb,pastparticiplerdVBPVerb,presenttense,not3personsingularrdVBZVerb,presenttense,3personsingularWDTWH-determinerWPWH-pronounWRBWH-adverb-106-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegreeAcknowledgementsThepresentthesishastakenmenearlyoneyeartodothepreviousinvestigationsandresearchwork,theprocessofwhicharefilledwithallkindsofhardshipsandenormousgloomydays.Anumberofpeoplehaveendowedtheirkindnessandeffortstohelpmefinishthisthesisandaccompanymeduringmytwo-yeargraduatelife,withoutwhosehelp,Iwouldnothavecomesofarandovercomeallthedifficulties.Firstofall,mysincereacknowledgementgoestomysupervisorProfessorWangLixin.Duringthecompletionoftheresearch,Ihavereceivedgreathelpfromher,whooffersinvaluablesuggestions.Second,myspecialthanksaregrantedtoProf.MikeScott,theauthorofWordSmithTools,whohasprovidedfreetechnicalsupportsformycurrentresearch.Hisgenerosityandencouragementshelpstrengthenmydeterminationstomoveforward.What’smore,IwouldliketoextendmysinceregratitudetomyboyfriendJiTianqiwhohasalwaysshownthewarmestsolicitudeandlovingcaretome.Withouthisbackup,Icouldnotimagehowcolorlessmyuniversitylifewouldhavebeen,nottomentionovercomingthegloomydaysduringthecompletionofthisthesis.Lastbutnotleast,mydeepestrespectandappreciationgoestomymotherwhohasalwaysbeensparingnoefforttosupportmydecisions.Ireallyappreciateherpatiencetowalkmethroughallthestagesofmywriting.Theaccomplishmentofthethesisisunimaginablewithoutherbothfinancialandspiritualsupports.-107-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegreePaperPublishedduringStudyRenJinghui,WangLixin.MiningTextual-FeatureBasedResearchOnTranslator’sStyles.Proceedingsofthe2012InternationalConferenceonMachineLearningandCybernetics.EISource.-108-
HITGraduationThesisfortheMADegree哈尔滨工业大学学位论文原创性声明和使用权限学位论文原创性声明本人郑重声明：此处所提交的学位论文《基于语料库的〈长恨歌〉译者文体研究》，是本人在导师指导下，在哈尔滨工业大学攻读学位期间独立进行研究工作所取得的成果，且学位论文中除已标注引用文献的部分外不包含他人完成或已发表的研究成果。对本学位论文的研究工作做出重要贡献的个人和集体，均已在文中以明确方式注明。学位论文使用权限学位论文是研究生在哈尔滨工业大学攻读学位期间完成的成果，知识产权归属哈尔滨工业大学。学位论文的使用权限如下：（1）学校可以采用影印、缩印或其他复制手段保存研究生上交的学位论文，并向国家图书馆报送学位论文；（2）学校可以将学位论文部分或全部内容编入有关数据库进行检索和提供相应阅览服务；（3）研究生毕业后发表与此学位论文研究成果相关的学术论文和其他成果时，应征得导师同意，且第一署名单位为哈尔滨工业大学。保密论文在保密期内遵守有关保密规定，解密后适用于此使用权限规定。本人知悉学位论文的使用权限，并将遵守有关规定。-109-
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