Nelson’sPracticalGuidetoStarting,Writing,andCompletingaMaster’sThesis(WithEmphasisonMassCommunicationStudents)___________byRichardAlanNelsonProfessorManshipSchoolofMassCommunicationLouisianaStateUniversityBatonRouge,Louisiana,USA70803-7202Dr.Nelson’sTele phone•225-578-6686Dr.Nelson’sEmail•Rnelson@lsu.eduManshipSchoolFax:Fax•225-578-2125ManshipSchoolHomePage•http://www.manship.lsu.edu/manship/index.htmLSUMassCommunicationAssociationofGraduateStudents•http://its2.ocs.lsu.edu/guests/mcagsLSUGraduateSchoolHomePage•http://gradlsu.gs.lsu.eduSeptember2003,version10.0NOTE:Mythankstothoseauthors(includingcolleagues)ofnon-copyrightedpublicationsforideas,quotations,and(insomecases)entireparaphrasedsectionsofthisguide.Pleaseaddressanycorrections,revisions,additions,orothersuggestionsforimprovementtoDr.Nelson.Colleaguesatotherinstitutionsshouldfeelfreetocopythisguideandadaptitasappropriatefortheirowninstitutionalneeds.Acknowledgementwouldbeappreciatedbutisnotrequired.43
•Researchistheprocessofarrivingatdependablesolutionstoproblemsthroughtheplannedandsystematiccollection,analysis,andinterpretationofdata.(Balian,1982,p.1)•Researchisnotmerelytheactofstringingtogetherfactsfromavarietyofsources.Inaddition,youmustanalyzeandinterpretwhatyoufind.Wevalueresearchnotforthemassofinformationitbringstous,butbecauseithelpsusgrowwiser.Authenticresearch,therefore,isarational,systematicsearchfornewknowledgeandunderstandingoftheworldaroundus.(Paraphrasedfrom“MastersofMilitaryArt,”1988,p.2-2)43Congratulations!43Ifyouarereadingthisthenyouhavebeguntocompletetherequirementsforyourmaster’sdegree.Asyoupursueyourcoursework,participateinseminars,andconsultwithfacultymembers,numerousideasforstudyandresearchshouldbepresentedthatmaybeturnedintosuccessfultheses.Asyouprogress,youwillbeginmovingawayfromtheformalclassroomsettingintoaworldcontrolledbyyourowninterestsandabilities.Youwillbedemonstratingthatyoupersonallyhavesomethingtooffertotheprofessionaldisciplineyouhavedecidedtofollow.Thisisthepointatwhichmostgraduatestudentspanicandbegintowonderwhattheyhavegottenthemselvesinto.DON’T.Youwillhaveafacultytheretohelp.YourCommitteemembersareinterestedinyoursuccess.Theyhavebeenthroughthissituationmanytimesbefore.Evenwhentheyseemtobeputtingroadblocksinyourway,facultyreallydowantyoutosucceed.Yourfirststepinpreparingyourresearchisthismanual.Itisdesignedtohelpyouthroughtheseproblems:1.Selectingaresearchtopic,especiallyoneswithdirectprofessionalapplication.2.Planningfortheresearch.3.CompletinganinitialproposalforyourCommittee.4.Preparingtheformalprospectus.5.Preparingthefinalversionofyourthesis,readyforasuccessfuloralexamination.Remember--Youareinaprofessionalgraduateprogramandtheinvestigationsyouundertakeinyourclassworkandforyourthesiscanhelpyoudevelopaninterpersonalnetworkandgiveyouadded-valueknowledgeandpracticalskillsusefulinajobsearchandlatercareer.43
TableofContents(v10.0,September2003)I’maProfessionalCommunicator.WhyMe?………………………..1ThePurposeoftheThesis………………………………………...1BasicCheck-OffListforCompletingYourThesis…………………..2TheDifferenceBetweenaThesisandaReport………………….9SelectingaTopic………………………………………………..10WritingtheProposalandProspectus…………………………………13TheIntroduction…………………………………………………15TheLiteratureReview……………………………………………16TheMethodologySection……………………………………….18TheFinalVersion……………………………………………….19TheResults……………………………………………………..19TheDiscussionorConclusion……………………………………19AcademicWritingStyle……………………………………………..20MonetarySupport………………………………………………….21AbstractRequirements………………………………………………21Publishing,Copywriting,andPresentingYourWork…………………21ArrangementofYourThesis…………………………………………22StyleGuidesandProcedure…………………………………………24Bibliography…………………………………………………………26Appendixes…………………………………………………………27A:ConstructingaResearchProject…………………………………27B:AdvantagesandDisadvantagesofaCaseStudybyDr.AliM.KansoofUniversityofTexas-SanAntonio……….28C:HowNotToDoAcknowledgments……………………………..32D:JournalismandMassCommunicationAbstractsForm………...33E:Master’sAbstractsInternationalInformation…………………..34F:AnAbbreviatedAssociatedPressStyleGuide…………………..3543
I’maProfessionalCommunicator.WhyMe?ThePurposeoftheThesisAtthispoint,theworldofresearchmayseemlikeaforeignandhostileplace.Butthetruthismostofyouarealreadyveryfamiliarwithit.Mostofusengageinresearchofsomekindvirtuallyeveryday.WhichproductshouldIbuy?WhatmovieshouldIsee?WhatpositionshouldItakeonapoliticalissue?Moststudentshavealsowrittenmanytermpapersandconductedstudiesinpreparationforclassassignments,campaigns,orarticles.Thisworkmaynotseemrelatedtowhatyouareabouttodo,butthebasicprocessisthesame.Yourthesiswillbuildonyourownworkexperience,education,attitudes,interests,andabilities.Youwilljustbemovingawayfromtheintuitiveprocessmanyofyounowusetowardthemoreformal,disciplinedstyleusedbytheacademicandprofessionalresearchworld.Whatyoulearnhereisalsovaluableinworkingworldprofessionswherecriticalthinkingskillsareimperative.Whateveryourcareerinterest,conductingformalresearchandwritingathesisshouldnotberegardedasanalienprocess.Yet,atthesametime,youmustunderstandthatthisisamajorstepinyoureducation.Theactofputtingtogetherathesisentailsamentallyrigorousprocessthatdemandsself-discipline.Thismaywellbethelargestsingleprojectyouhaveeverundertaken.ItisNOTsomethingthatcanbecompletedinacoupleofweeksasyourushtowardyourgraduationdeadline.Consideringtheamountoftime,frustration,andeffortweareaskingyoutoputintothisproject,youhavearighttoask“WHYBOTHER?”ThereasonsaremanyandgobeyondthefactthatallthemembersofyourCommitteehadtodoitwhentheygottheirdegrees.Thischallengeisnotjustanotherarcaneinitiationritual,leftoverfrom800yearsofacademictradition.Theprimaryreasonsforcompletingathesisaretohelpyouexperiencesignificantintellectualgrowthandtoincreaseyourconfidenceinyourabilitytoidentifyandsolvecomplexproblems.Thisgrowthwilloccurasyourecognizeimportantissues,developmethodstohandlethoseissues,conductresearchtoanswerspecificquestions,drawyourownconclusionsbasedonyourfindings,andthenwriteaboutyourdiscoveriestosharewithothercommunicators.Asecondmajorreasonforthethesisistohelpyou—undertheguidanceofyourCommittee—learnhowtoconductformal,historically,socially,legally,and/orscientificallyacceptableresearch.Bythetimeyouarefinished,youwillknowthedifferencebetweenrealscholarlyresearchandtheanecdotalor“pop”varietyinfectingtheworldofmasscommunication.Youwillbeabletotakewhatyouhavelearnedandapplyittoanyjob-relatedresearchsituationyoumayencounter.Youarenowatapointwhereyouarereadytostartaddingbasicandappliedknowledgetothediscipline.Yourthesismaywellbeyourfirstattempttodisseminateyourviewstothepeopleworkinginthecareerareayouhavechosenforyourself.Itisyourmoveawayfrombeingastudenttowardbecomingacontributingprofessional.43
Finally,studentsareencouragedtotakesomeelectivecourseworkoutsidethedepartmentinprogramsinothercollegesoncampusorinstitutionselsewhere.BasicCheck-OffListForCompletingYourThesis1.YouareresponsibleforreadingandfollowingalltheinstitutionsMaster’srequirements.TheseregulationsaretypicallyfoundinaGraduateBulletinusuallydistributedtostudentsonline.Seeyourinstitution’sGraduateSchoolofficewherethecounselorscanalsoprovidefurtherinformationandforms.□_______________(GotcopyoftheGraduateBulletin,date)2.Selectageneralareaforstudyandtrytofocusonaparticulartopic.Ideascancomefromanumberofsources:Yourownpriorexperience,currentevents,yourclassassignments,anddiscussionwithothers(professionals,students,faculty)arethemostcommonwaystoestablishpossibleissuesandquestionsforinvestigation.Facultymayalsohavearesearchagendathatyoumaybeableto“pluginto.”However,theresponsibilityforformulatingthethesisproposalrestswiththestudent.Facultymemberswillnormallyserveinanadvisorycapacityonlyandnot“assign”atopictoyou.(Seethe“SelectingaTopic”sectionbelow.)□_________________________________(generalarea)3.WriteaproposalandputtogetheryourGraduateCommittee.Allstudentsshouldbegintodevelopaprogramofstudyassoonaspossible.Initialandroutineadvisingistheresponsibilityoftheprogram’sGraduateStudiesadvisorwhowillhelpyouandfacultycoordinatethebureaucraticpaperworkthatneedstobefiled.However,eachstudentwilldevelopaprogramofstudyundertheguidanceofaCommitteecomprisedofamajorprofessorandadditionalmembersofthegraduatefacultyrepresentingprimaryand/orsecondaryfieldsofstudy.TheGraduateCommitteeisstructuredtomeettheneedsandinterestsofeachgraduatestudentandtoensurethatthestudent'spro gramofstudywillprovidethehighestlevelofpreparation.Theproposalshouldbeshortandtothepoint(nomorethanthreepageslong).Formoststu dentsthechoiceoftheproposedsubjectmatterofthethesisisbasedontheirowninterestsandinclinations.ThecandidateshouldapproachpotentialCommitteemembers,discussthetopic,andaskifthosefacultymembersarewillingtoserveontheCommittee.YoushouldbeginaskingfacultymemberstobepartofyourCommitteeasearlyaspossible,andnolaterthanfollowingcompletionof9hoursofgraduateworkorbyyoursecondsemester.TheCommitteemembershipwillalsohavetobeapprovedbytheprogramGraduateAdvisor.TheCommitteewillrecommendselectionofcourses,guideyourresearch,approvethethesis,andconductyourfinaloralexaminations.As“thecandidate,”youareresponsibleforinitiallyselectingtheCommittee,askingoneofthememberstoserveasyourmajorprofessorChairperson/CommitteeHead,settingupmeetingswiththeChairtodiscussyourproposedtopicandmethodindepth,gettingtheproposalapproved,andprovidingwrittencopiesofmaterialtoyourChairandCommitteeas43
appropriateforevaluationtoproceedwithyourresearch.ItisusuallybesttofirstcontactafacultymemberinterestedinyourmajorareaofemphasisandthenseekrecommendationsfromthispersonforotherCommitteemembers.ThisCommitteemusthaveaminimumofthreemembers.Allmustholdofficialgraduatefacultystatusandmeetotherqualificationsdeterminedbyyourinstitution.YoucanusuallygetalistofqualifiedfacultyfromyourGraduateAdvisororChair.(YoumayaskagraduatefacultymemberfromoutsideofMassCommunicationtoserveonyourCommitteeifyouwish;thisisrequiredifyouhaveanofficialgraduateminorconcentrationfromanotherdepartment.)Gettingthe“right”committeeisimportantsincetheyvoteonwhetherornotyougraduate.Studentswhowishtomakechangesintheircommitteegenerallymaydosoonlywithawrittenpetition.Committeemembersmayberemovedonlywiththeirconsent,subjecttoapprovalbytheGraduateAdvisor.IntheeventthatthefacultymemberandtheGraduateAdvisordisagreeonthecommitteemember'sremoval,thematteristypicallyreferredtotheDeanforresolution.Sothegoalistogetgoodmembersandavoidhassles.Remember:TheChairperson/CommitteeHeadistheindividualyouwillhavethemostcontactwithandwhowillhavefirstapprovaloveryourthesis.□_________________________________(AppointmentofFacultyChair,date)□_________________________________(AppointmentofCommitteeMember#1,date)□_________________________________(AppointmentofCommitteeMember#2,date)□_________________________________(Chairapprovalofproposal,date)□__________________and_________________(Committeeapprovalofproposal,date)□____________________________(CopyofapprovedproposaltoGraduateAdvisor,date)□_______________(GotGuidelinesforthePreparationofThesesandDissertations,date)4.AskyourChairandCommitteememberstohelpyoudevelopyourresearchquestionandrelatedhypotheses.TheCommitteehasquiteabitofflexibilityintermsofadvisingyouonthesisstructure,format,andmethodology.Sinceyourthesiscountsas6hourstowardgraduation,itrequiresoriginalscholarlyresearchandanextensiveanalysisofrelevantinformationandpre-existingliterature.Beginsearchingthisliterature(publications,newsaccounts,databases,governmentrecords,mediareleases,advertisements,broadcasts,organizationalarchives,legalcases,individualexpertsetc.)onyourchosentopicandusewhatyoufindouttorefineyourresearchquestion,todevelophypothesescenteredaroundthatquestion,andtohelpapplyamethodtoanswerthequestionssystematically.Youcanstartworkingonyourthesisideasassoonasyouentergraduatestudy.Manystudentsinformallybeginworktowardathesisinthepaperstheydoforvariousclasses.Assignments,particularlyinthecorecourses,canhelpyouinthisrespectandpossiblylaterbeintegratedintoyourthesis.YoucanutilizetheInternet,emailandotheronlinesources.43
5.StudentsshouldnotregisterforthesisresearchcredituntiltheproposalhasbeensubmittedandapprovedbytheCommittee.Followingapproval,youmayreceivepermissiontoregisterforthesisresearchwhichisgradedbyyourCommitteeChairperson,usuallyusingthecriteriaofsatisfactoryprogress(“S”)/unsatisfactoryprocess(“U”).MeetminimumregistrationrulesasoutlinedintheGraduateBulletin.IfyouareusingUniversityresources—facultyadviceandtime,equipment,libraryfacilities,and/orofficespace—youmayenrollin1-12credithoursofthesisresearchpersemesterbasedonyourinvolvement.Ninehoursasemesterforallcoursesisconsideredafull-timeload(sixhoursinsummer).However,notethatyoumustregisterforthesisduringthesemesteryougraduateandevenifyouhave30thesishoursnomorethansixhoursmaycounttowardfulfillingMaster’sdegreerequirements.6.Reviseyourproposal,takingintoaccounttheCommittee'ssuggestions,andenlargeittoaformalprospectus.Furnishacopyofyourformalprospectus(typicallythefirstthreechaptersofyourthesis)toyourCommitteeChair.Youwillprobablyhavetogothroughseveraldraftsandmakemanychanges.OnlyaftertheChairissatisfieddoyoucirculatetheprospectustootherCommitteemembers.GetpermissionfromyourChairtoscheduleaCommitteemeeting.YourprospectusmustgotoCommitteemembersatleasttenworkingdaysbeforethemeetingtodiscusstheprospectus.Aftercorrections,fileacopyoftheapprovedprospectuswiththeGraduateAdvisor.□_______________(Chairapproval,date)□______________(Committeeapproval,date)□_______________(CopyofapprovedprospectustoGraduateAdvisor,date)7.Collectadditionaldata.Analyzeandinterprettheresultsastheyrelatetoyourresearchquestionsandhypotheses.InconjunctionwithyourChair,youwillalsohavetodetermineiftheresearchiscompleteorifmoreevidencestillneedstobegathered.□_______________(Chairapproval,date)8.Developconclusionsandsuggestionsbasedonyourfindings.Writeupyourresults.Showhowyourresearchanswersthespecificquestionsyouhaveproposed,howtheresultsapplytotherealworld,andwhatsuggestionsyouhaveregardingareaswherefurtherresearchisneeded.DistributethechapterstoyourChair.□______(Chairapproval,date)□_____(DegreeauditwithGraduatecounselor,date)9.AspartoftherequirementsfortheMaster’sdegree,youmustsuccessfullycompleteanoralexamination(the“thesisdefense”)administeredbyyourCommitteeafterthecompletionofrequiredcourseworkandsubmissionofthewrittenthesis,butbeforeitissenttotheGraduateSchool.AfterapprovalbyyourChair,eachmemberoftheCommitteemustbegivenanopportunitytoreadafirstdraftofthethesis.IfanymemberoftheCommitteebelievesthatthefullCommitteeshouldmeetwiththestudentatthispoint,themajorprofessor(theChair/Head)willschedulesuchameeting.NofinalexaminationwillbescheduledbytheChairuntilasufficientnumberofmem bersoftheCommitteearesatisfiedwiththethesistoensurethatthestu dentwillnotautomaticallyfail(astudentcannotpass43
withmorethanonenegativevote).Thefinaloralexaminationwillbeadministeredonlyafteratentativelyaccept ablethesisiscompleted,andclean,readablecopieshavebeenavailabletoallmem bersoftheCommitteeforatleasttwoweeks.Thisexaminationbasicallyconcentratesonthewrittenthesisandrelatedcoursework.However,itmayalsoincludequestionsconcerningotheraspectsofyourgraduatestudy.Youmaypasswithoutrevisionstoyourthesis,passcontingentonmakingspecificmanuscriptcorrectionsandchangespriortoitssubmissiontotheGraduateSchool,orfail(inwhichcaseyou,yourCommitteeChair,andtheGraduateAdvisorwillneedtomeetandexploreyouroptions).REMEMBER:Youareresponsibleforcoordinatingtheexamdate,place,andtimewithyourCommitteeChairperson.TheschedulerequiredbytheGraduateSchooltocompletepaperworkassociatedwithapprovalofthethesisshouldbetakenintoaccountasthetimingoftheoralexammayaffectthesemesterinwhichyougraduate.YoualsoneedtomakeanappointmentwiththeGraduateSchooleditortoensureyourthesisisformattedcorrectlyforboththeprintandelectronicversionsyouwillneedtoprovide.ConsulttheGraduateSchoolcalendareachsemesterforappropriatedeadlinesandforms,withcopiestotheGraduateAdvisor.ForMaster’sstudentsinterestedinpursuingthePh.D.,thethesisandfinaloralexaminationarealsousedinframingrecommendationsforemploymentandadmissiontodoctoralprograms.□_________________(Filed“ApplicationforCandidacyforaMaster’sDegree”form,date)□__________________(Filed“RequestforMaster’sExamination”form,date)□__________________(CommitteeChairapproval/signatureon“Master’sExamination”)and“ThesisReport”formsdeliveredtoGraduateSchool,date)□__________________and_________________(CommitteeMemberapprovals,date)□__________________(VisitedGraduateSchooleditorforformatcheck,date)10.Afewwordsoffurtheradviceinavoidingproblems.Historically,thebiggestsingleproblemwiththesisandprojectworkhasbeenstudentlatenessingettingtheworkintothehandsofhisorherChairpersonandCommitteemembers.Itistherarethesisorprojectthatdoesnotneedatleastsomerevision—andoftenmajorrevision—tobecomefullyacceptablebynormalacademicandprofessionalstandards.YetfartoomanygraduatestudentswaituntiltheverylastminutetoturninafirstdraftoftheirworktotheChairpersonandtherestoftheCommittee.ThisforcestheCommitteeintooneoftwodecisions,eitherofthembad:(1)rejectingtheworkoutright,forcingadelayingraduation,or(2)acceptingfarlesseffectiveworkthanthestudentwouldseemcapableofdoing.GraduationshavehadtobedelayedsimplybecauseotherwisecompetentstudentsintheSchoolforcedtheircommitteesintoassessmentofmarginalorsub-marginalwork.Don'tplaceyourselfandyourCommitteeinthisposition.Meetyourdeadlines,andthushelpyourChair(whowillworklongandhardwithyou)andyourselfproduceathesisofwhichyoucanbejustifiablyproud.IfyoumissGraduateSchooldates,youmaybeeligiblefor“DegreeOnly”statusthatallowsyoutograduatethenextsemesterforonlyanominalfeetocorrectyourdiploma.Remember:Nomatterhowmanycredithoursyoutake,youmustprepareathesisacceptabletothesupervisoryCommitteeandtheGraduateSchool.43
11.Followingasuccessfuldefense,eachgraduatingstudentneedstocompletethepaperwork(includingformatcheck)andapprovalsrequiredbytheGraduateSchoolandyourprogram(includingextraabstracts).ManyuniversitiesparticipateintheElectronicThesisandDissertation(ETD)Initiative,soyouwilllikelyhavetoprepareyourthesiselectronically.Furtherinformationisavailablefromyourinstitutionwithinstructionsforonlineposting.YouneedtoalsodepositboundcopiesofthefinalthesiswithyourCommitteeChairandmembers.Youmay,ofcourse,makeadditionalcopiesforyourpersonaluse.Graduationfeesareassessedafterthestudentsubmitsthe“ApplicationforaDegree”formtotheGraduateSchool.□_______________(Filed“ApplicationforaDegree”form,GraduateSchool,date)□_______________(AllGraduateSchoolpaperwork,ETDthesis,andfeescompleted,date)□_______________(BoundthesiscopytoChairanddiscussionofpublicationoptions,date)□_______________(Boundthesiscopiesgiventocommitteemembers,date)□_______________(AbstractsenttoJournalismandMassCommunicationAbstracts,date)□_______________(AbstractandfeessenttoMaster’sAbstracts,UMI,date)□_______________(AbstractcopiestoGraduateAdvisorforstudent’sfile,date)TheDifferenceBetweenaThesisandaReportItishardtodefinethedifferencebetweenthesetwotypesofgraduateresearchpapers,astheyaregenerallyarrangedinthesameorderandinvolvemanyofthesamesteps.TheeasiestsolutionisthattheCommitteemembersknowwhichiswhichwhentheyseeit,soaskthem.Thedifferencebetweenareportandthesisreallyhasnothingtodowithlength.Whilethereportisusuallyshorter,somereportscangoonformorethana100pages,whileanexperimentalthesismightonlyfill30pages.NOTE:TherecommendedlengthofthemainbodyofaMasterofMassCommunicationthesisisbetween50and150pages.Thereareafewotherrulesthatcanbegiventodistinguishbetweenthereportandthesis:1.Athesismustinvolvesomeformoforiginalresearch(includinginterviews,surveys,useofunpublishedmaterials,etc.),whilethereportcansummarizetheworkofotherswithoutanyoriginalresearchofitsown.2.Areportcanbebuiltaroundaproject,suchasavideoproduction,acampaigndesign,acommunityserviceprojectandsoon,whilethethesisalwaysinvolvesastructuredstyleofacademicallyacceptableresearchinwhichpracticehastobelinkedtotheory.However,pleasenotethatthisdoesnotprecludetheincorporationofaudio-visualmaterialsintoathesisnorhavingaveryprofessionalfocustoyourwork.43
1.Areportinvolvesthree(3)creditsofelectivework,whilethethesisinvolvessix(6)creditsworthofrequiredwork.Thisdifferenceseemsobvious,butthequestionishowmuchtimeisgoingintothefinalthesis—aboutthesameasa6-creditcourseloadora3-creditcourseload?2.Areportcanbelargelydescriptive,whilethethesismustleadtooriginalconclusions.Thismeanstheseconclusionscanbegeneralizedtotheworldatlarge,ortheycanbecomparedtotheoreticalmodelsortoothercases.Forexample,astudyofwhathasbeenpublishedontourismpromotionalcampaignsmightmakeagoodreportandcouldserveastheliteraturereview.However,tomakethestudyintoathesis,theresultsfromtheonecommunitycasestudywouldneedtobecomparedtoatheoreticalmodel,ortwoactualtourismeffortswouldneedtobestudiedandtheresultscomparedtothedraworiginalconclusionsabouttourismcampaigns.3.CheckwithyourCommitteeChair,whoyoushouldworkwithtoorganizeamaster’sCommitteeearlyinyourgraduateprogram(see“StepsinCompletingYourThesis”).Thesefacultymemberswillbeabletodeterminewhetheryourproposedprojectiscapableofbeingathesisornot.StudentsareencouragedtohaveatentativethesistopicselectedandthethesisproposalbegunbythesecondsemesteratLSUandcertainlybeforecourseworkiscompleted;innocaseshouldthethesisprospectus(generallythefirstthreechapters)becompletedlaterthantheendofthethirdsemesteroffull-timegraduatestudy.SelectingATopicToqualifyformaster’slevelwork,yourtopicmustmeetseveralrequirements.Itshouldmakeacontributiontothefieldofstudy.Itmustshoworiginality,independentthinking,masteryofthesubjectmatter,anabilitytothinklogically,andtocompleteacceptableresearchinsomeaspectofmasscommunications.Thetopicalsoshouldbeoneyouwanttostudy.Thisinvolvementisessential,asthedisciplineandstylerequiredtocompletethethesiswillbeverytaxing.Athesisresultsfromanindividually-initiatedprogramofthegraduatestudent—aprogramwhichcanbecarriedoutalone.Ifthestudyisofpersonalinterest,youwillfindtheworkrewarding,fun,andenlightening.Iftheareaisoneselectedjusttocompletethedegree,youwillfinditveryhardtogetthroughthenecessarybusyworkandstylerequirements.Frompersonalexperience,facultyhavediscoveredthatstudentswhoworkonareasinwhichtheyhavenorealinteresttendtodosloppyresearch,makedumbmistakes,andoftenneverfinishthework.Thereareseveralguidelinesyoumaywanttoconsiderinselectingatopicandformulatingyourthesis.Allofthefollowingmethodshavebeenusedsuccessfullybygraduatestudents:1.Considersomethingthatwillprovideaneworimprovedanalysisofcurrentthought.Forexample,youmightstudywaystotesttheeffectivenessofadvertisingcampaignsortoanalyzetheaudience.Youmighttestcompetingtheoriesofadvertisingpositioning,seeifaTVprogrammingtheorystillworks,orstudydifferentwaystolayoutanewspaper.Therearenoareasinmassmediawhereeverythingisalreadyknown.43
1.Combineinformationfromseveralsourcestoarriveatanewconclusionordiscovery.2.Exploreaspectsofasubjectthathavenotbeenwidelyconsidered.3.Refineotherpeople'sworkortheories.4.Questionexistingassumptionsorhypotheses.5.Enlargeuponyourownobservationsorfeelingsinasystematicway.6.Validateearlierresearchbyredoingastudyorbylookingatconclusionsfromanewangle.7.Conductoriginalresearchintoatopicthathasnotbeenconsideredpreviouslyatall.Agoodtopicisnotlimitedtoanyspecificareaorsetofsubjects,butitshouldmeetseveralconditions.1.Itshouldprovideanopportunityfororiginalthinkingineithersubstanceorapproach.Thistaskisnotasdifficultasitmayseem.Allthatisrequiredisanapproachtothesubjectfromanewpointofview.Youmayrethinkassumptionsorquestiontheaccuracyofwhatisnowbeingthought.Youmayrefinegeneralideasinmorespecifictermsorapplyacceptedmethodstonewsituations.Youmayutilizeinterviewstoaddnewinformation.Inshort,therearemanywaystoachieveoriginalthinking.However,allofthesemethodsaredependentonimmersionintotheliteratureonthetopic.Whenyoubegintograspwhathasbeenwritten,youwillalsobegintounderstandwhatismissing,whathasnotbeentested,whatmayhavechangedovertime,ormayjustbewrong.Afreshapproachalwaysstartswithacomfortablegraspofwhathasalreadybeendone.2.Agoodtopicshouldbefocusedasnarrowlyaspossible.Theworstmistakemostgraduatestudentsmakeistotrytotesteverything.Yourstudymustbekepttoaworkablesize.Forexample,itwouldbeimpossibletostudythequestion“Whatmakesasuccessfuladvertisement?”But,onecaneasilydealwithtopicssuchas“Howarewomenportrayedinadvertisementsforhouseholdproducts?”or“Whatisthedifferencebetweenthewaymenandwomenareusedinclothingadvertisementsontelevision?”Onewaytonarrowyourtopicandtohelpyourselfunderstandwhatisreallybeingaskedistowritea30-to50-wordtitleforyourproposedstudy.Thiseffortmayseemlikeoverkill,butitwillforceyoureallytothinkthroughwhatitisyouactuallywanttodo.3.Thetopicshouldhavesignificance.Inshort,youneedtobeabletojustifythetimeandeffortthatwillgointothequestion.Thereisatendencytogofortheeasyormomentarilypopulartopic.Thisapproachseldomproducesanythingofvalueandusuallyresultsinsloppyresearch.Remember,thepurposeofthethesisistoaddto43
thebodyofknowledgeandshowthatyouarereadytoearnaplaceasascholarinthisfield.1.Thetopicshouldbereducedtoaquestionthatwillguideallfuturestepsintheresearchprocess.Itshouldleadnaturallytosub-questions,hypotheses,andamethod.Thetopicshouldbothguideandlimittheliteraturereview.Itshouldalsoindicateanopen-mindednessonthepartoftheresearchertoconsiderallalternatives.Inshort,youshouldnotsetouttoproveapre-conceivednotion.2.Thetopicshouldbefeasible,giventhetime,resources,andlimitationsoftheprogram.Virtuallyanyquestioncanbeasked.However,givenourresources,notallquestionscanbeanswered.(Note:ItisyourCommittee'sjobtohelpyoumeettheserequirements,butitisyourresponsibilitytodeveloptheinitialtopicfordiscussion.)3.Payattentiontothedetails,especiallyGraduateSchoolrequirements,usuallyavailableinaprintedversionandonline.Alsoseethe“AcademicWritingStyle”and“StyleGuidesandProcedure”sectionsbelow.4.WorkthroughyourCommitteeChairtogeteverythinginorderpriortosubmittingyourworktotheCommitteeasawhole.Byusingthis“chainofcommand”approach,youavoidmanypitfalls.Asyoubecomeexpertinyourtopic,yougainconfidenceinexplainingittoothers.Byknowingyourtopicwell,youshouldbeabletoanswerquestionspertainingtoit.Theoraldefenseusuallyrequiresyoutodiscusshowyoubecameinterestedinthetopic,theprocessyouwentthroughinorganizingyourthesis,whyyoumadespecificchoices,andwhatyoulearnedinyourgraduateexperience.Yourgoalshouldbetogetasearlyastartaspossible—thecorecoursesandelectivescanprofitablybeusedtohelplaunchandcompletethethesis.Severalresourcescanprovevaluableingettinganearlystartandconceptualizingyourproject.Forexample,CommunicationAbstracts,JournalismandMassCommunicationAbstracts,Master’sAbstracts,andTheSocialScienceCitationIndexaresomeofthehelpfulguidesthatwillaidyouinfindingperiodicalliteratureandpreviouslycompletedthesesanddissertations.Mostacademiclibrarieshaveaccesstoahostofspecialtyresearchresourcesonline,whichcanproveinvaluable—socheckwithyourreferencelibrarians.TheauthoritativesourceonbooksandjournalsisMassMediaBibliography:AnAnnotatedGuidetoBooksandJournalsforResearchandReferencebyEleanorBlumandFrancisGoinsWilhoit(Urbana:UniversityofIllinoisPress,latestedition).Youshouldalsoconsultatleastoneofthefollowinggeneralguidesonwritingtheresearchproject:TheCraftofResearchbyWayneC.Booth,GregoryG.Colomb,andJosephM.Williams(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1995);TheModernResearcherbyJacquesBarzun(NewYork:HarcourtBraceJovanovich,latestedition);AHandbookforScholarsbyMary-ClairevanLeunen(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,latestedition);orsimilarreference.WritingtheProposalandProspectus43
Theproposal,prospectus,andthefirstthreechaptersorsectionsofyourthesisarestructuredidentically.Theydifferonlyintheamountofthoughtandeffortthatgointothem.Theproposalisveryshort—generallyjusttwoorthreepagesandconsistsofthefollowingthreesections:1.Anintroductionofyourresearchquestionandhypothesis.Hereyouidentifyorformulateaclearstatementoftheproblemorpurposeoftheproposedthesisandwhatformitwilltake.ThiswritingshouldbedetailedenoughsothatyourCommitteeknowswhatyouplantoinvestigate.2.Abriefreviewofliterature/resourcesshowingwhathasbeendoneinthefieldalreadyandwhyyourworkwillbeimportant.Thisisillustrative,notexhaustive.3.Asuggestedplanofprocedureorresearchdesignmethodtopursueyourstudy.Thisincludesastatementconcerningthemethodsand/ordatasetyouintendtoemploy.Youwillneedtoincorporateproposeddeadlines.TheproposalshouldbetightlywrittenbutcontainsufficientdetailtotellprospectiveCommitteemembersifyourtopicis“do-able,”ifthereisasufficientinformationbasetostudyyourtopic,ifyouhavearesearchmethodthatismanageable(quantitativeorqualitative),andifthetopicandapproachfittheirinterestsandexpertise.Specificitemswhichmaybeaddressedinthesesectionsincludethetentativetitleofthethesis,yourcentralideaorgoal,thetheoreticalunderpinningsofyourresearch,possiblehypothesesforinvestigation,resourcesuponwhichthethesisistobebased,anoutlineofyourplanstocompletetheresearch,astatementofthesignificanceoftheproblemtobesolved,andpreviousresearchstudiesand/orexperiencethatindicateyouhavetherequiredskillsneededforthethesisproject.WritetheproposalinconsultationwiththepersonwhomyouexpecttobeyourthesisChairpersonorotherqualifiedfacultymember.Supervisorsshouldcounselgraduatestudentsearlyintheirprogramonthejudiciousselectionofamanageableandsuitablethesistopic.YouwillthensubmittheproposaltoprospectivemembersofyourthesisresearchCommittee.Basedonyourproposal,facultymemberswilldetermineiftheywishtoserveonyourCommittee.Oncetheyagreetoserve,yourCommitteewillthensuggestreadings,makecomments,andrecommendchanges.Thisisagreenlighttogettowork.Whileyourproposalwillestablishapreliminaryresearchquestionandmethod,asyourthesisprogresses,refinementsintheseareaswilloftenbecomenecessary.Asyoustartyourresearchyoumayalsofindthingsthatdon'tworkasplanned.Youmayevendiscoverthatthequestionmustberedoneorthemethodcompletelychanged.YourCommitteewilllikelyalsohavemanysuggestionsorclarificationsforthisinitialdocument.Allofthesefindingswillbeeditedandincorporatedintothenextdocument,theprospectus.Theformalprospectusismuchlonger(20to50pages)andisactuallyadraftversionofthefirstthreechaptersofyourfinalthesis.Itmustbeadetailedaccount,providingcompleteinformationinallthreeoftheareaslistedbelow.43
Oncetheprospectushasbeencompleted,themajorprofessorwillsched uleameetingoftheCommitteeandthestudenttodiscusstheproposedresearch.Themeetingfortheprospectusdefenseismandatoryandcoverstheproposedthesisaswellasrelatedliteratureandmethods.Aftertheprospectushasbeenapproved(withacopytogointoyourfileintheGraduateAdvisor’soffice),youmaybeginyouractualresearchcomfortableintheknowledgethatyourCommitteeisawareofyourtopicandhasagreedtoyourmethod.Afteritissigned,NOBASICCHANGESARENORMALLYMADEBYEITHERYOUORTHECOMMITTEE.THISDOCUMENTACTSASACONTRACTBETWEENYOUANDYOURCOMMITTEETHATTHEPROSPECTUSHASBEENACCEPTED.However,ifyoufeelmajorrevisionsoftheprospectusareneeded,youneedtosubmitthesetotheCommitteeforreviewandapproval.Thethreesectionsgenerallyaddressedinboththeproposalandprospectusare:1.Acompleteintroductionofthetopic.Hereyoujustifythestudy,anyhypothesisyouplantotest,andyourresearchquestion(s).2.Adetailedreviewofpertinentliteratureandinformationresourceswithexplanationsofhowthesesourcesinfluenceyourstudyandhowyourworkisdifferentfromwhathasalreadybeendone.Thistypicallyinvolvesanannotatedbibliographyinwhichyoulistrelevantauthors,titles,publisher,datesandplacesofpublicationalongwithcommentsonwhatthebookorarticleisaboutandhowitisrelevanttoyourtopic.Legalcasesandunpublisheddataaresimilarlytreatedasappropriate.Inessence,youjustifytheproblemasoneworthyofresearchtimeandshowthatthetopicisonethathasnotbeenpreviouslyinvestigatedinquitethesamewaybyanotherscholar.3.Amethodologysectiondescribinghowtheactualresearchwillbecompleted,withanannotatedoutlineandcalendar.Anannotatedoutlineshouldprovidethereaderwithadetailedunderstandingofthescopeandorganizationofyourthesis.Pleasenotethatthecalendarforcompletingthesectionsofyourthesisisanapproximation—anotherreasonwhyyouneedtoregularlyconsultwithyouradvisorconcerningyourprogress.IMPORTANTNOTEANDREMINDER:StudentsandmembersofAdvisoryCommitteesareremindedthatthepurposeofathesisistogivestudentstheopportunitytodemonstratetheirabilitytocarryoutaprofessionalstudyandtoproduceusefulresults.Thegoalistosuccessfullycompleteasustainedresearch-basednarrative,nottoproducedefinitiveorexhaustiveresearchonasubject.Studentsandfacultyshouldalsoknowathesismaysometimeslenditselftoasomewhatdifferentformatthantheonedescribedelsewhereinthisguidebecauseofthetopicormethodology.Legalanalyses,biographies,anddepthnon-fictionjournalisticnarrativesareexamplesofthetypesofstudiesthatcommonlymayuseanalternativechapterordering.Thenature,therelativesize,andtheplacementofeachoneofthesectionsandcomponentsofthethesisneednotfollowacookiecutterformulabutmaybeadjustedbythestudent,inconsultationwithhisorherthesisChair,asappropriatefortheproblemunderinvestigation.AslongasyouincludethebasicrequiredinformationandyourCommitteeapprovesthechapterstructure,youmaydeviatefromthecommonlyusedthesisformatdescribedbelow.TheIntroduction43
Inthemostwidelyutilizedthesisformat,theintroductiondefinesyourtopicandformulatesyourspecificresearchquestions.ItwillcontrolallthatfollowsandwillguideyourCommitteeatthefinaloralexam.WhenyourCommitteemembersreceiveyourthesis,theirmainquestionwillbe“Hasthecandidateclearlypresentedacomprehensiveanswertothebasicquestionssetforthintheintroduction?”Therefore,thissectionmustbeyourfirstconsideration.Donotmoveonuntilyouhaveacleargraspofthisarea.Thefollowinglistofitemsshouldbeconsideredasyouwritetheintroduction:1.Formulateoneprimaryquestionthatexpressestheproblemyouwishtosolve.Thiswillusuallyleadtoseveralsubordinatequestionsthatmustbeansweredinordertogetattheprimaryquestionandwillalsooftenleadtoseveralhypotheses,orstatementsofwhatyoubelieveyouwillfind.Thedifferencebetweenahypothesisandaquestionisbasictoresearch,andbothmayappearinthesamepaper.Thehypothesisisastatementofwhatyouthinkyouwillfind,andyourresearcheithersupportsorrejectsthatstatement.Example:Businessexecutivesaretreatedascallousobjectsinprime-timenetworktelevisionsituationcomedies,whileworkersareportrayedassympatheticfigures.Thequestionisjustthat,aquestionExample:Arebusinessexecutivesandworkersportrayeddifferentlyinbroadcastnetworkprime-timesituationcomedies?2.Justifytheimportanceoftheresearch.Nearthestartoftheintroductionyouneedtospecifywhatyourstudywillcontributetothefield.Youmightconsiderhowyourstudywillinfluencethefollowingfourareas:a.Personal:Whydoesthestudentwishtoexplorethistopic?Thestudent'smotivationshouldbereflectedintheproposalandprospectusstatement.b.Social:Whyisthisstudyimportanttosociety?Whoislikelytobenefitfromthisprojectandinwhatways?Whatwillsocietygainfromtheanswertothequestionyouhaveproposed?c.Scholarly:Howisitbetterthan,ordifferentfrom,previousprojectsandstudies?Whatwillthethesiscontributetotheacademicworldandparticularlytothescholarlycommunityinwhichyouareworking?d.Professional:Howwillansweringthequestionyouhaveproposedbenefitorhelpusbetterunderstandtheprofessionalcommunity?Whatpracticalapplicationswillcomefromyourwork?3.Provideanydefinitionsthatwillassistthereaderinunderstandingyourmeaningsorthevariablesthatareimportanttothestudy.Forexample,underthehypothesisstatedinNumber1above,youwouldneedtodefinewhatismeantby“business43
executives,”“callousobjects,”andby“treated.”Thedefinitionsareuptoyou,buttheymustbeprovidedsothatotherscandiscusstheirvalidity.1.Limitations—Limitthescopeofyourstudy.Indicateyourassumptionsandwhyandhowyounarrowedthetopicunderconsideration.Thissectionwillincludetherationaleforyourspecificareaofstudy.2.Indicatewhatyouexpecttodiscoverandlistpossiblealternativesandwhattheywouldmean.Forexample,inastudyoftelevisionratingsoverthelastfiveyears,youmightexpecttofindageneraldeclineinnetworkprimetimeviewing,However,youmightfindonlysomenetworkshaddeclinedoronlysomenightsortimes.Ifthatwereso,whatmightthedataindicatewashappeningintermsofaudiencepreferences?3.Finally,ofteninlistform,providethespecificquestionsorhypothesesthestudywilladdress.Thisformalstatementoftheproblemmayincludesub-statementsaswarranted.TheLiteratureReviewTheliteraturereviewservestoshowyourCommitteeandotherswhoreadyourthesisthatyouhaveabroadcommandofyourtopic’srelevantbodyofknowledge.Thereviewprovidesahistoricalandtheoreticalframeworkandformsamajorportionofyourfinalproject.Theliteraturereviewrequiresthatyouclassifythebooksandarticlesaccordingtotheideasyouconsiderpertinenttothethemesdevelopedinyourthesis.Authorsandtitlesappearalmostexclusivelyinreferencenotes;hence,thesubjectsofthetopicsentencesofeachparagraphreferencethecriticalthematicaspectsyouwilldevelopinyourthesis.Whatdrivestheliteraturereviewisideas.Theirorganizationiscriticaltothesuccessoftheliteraturereview.Bythetimethereaderreachestheconclusion,sheorheshouldnotonlyhaveasenseofthecontributionofearlierauthorstoyourunderstandingofthetopic,butalsohowyourcontributionwillbuildontheirpriorwork.Remember,youarebecominganexpertonyourchosentopic,andthatexpertisecanbeacquiredonlyifyoufullyunderstandwhathasalreadybeenwritten,thought,orassumed.Youwilldescribethemethodofselectionforsourcesalreadysearchedandforthosetobesearchedlater.Yousummarizepreviousfindingsandresearcheffortsthatleadyoutobelievethatyouhaveisolatedameaningfulresearchquestion.Youwillalsoneedtoindicatethatnooneelsehasansweredthequestionthathasbeenproposed,or,iftheyhave,whyyoufeelitisnecessarytolookatitagain.Becausenewresearchoftenchallengesexistingtheory,itisimportantthatyoubecome—andappearconversantwith—thepredominant“schoolsofthought”regardingyourtopic.Usethereviewtojustifyyourmethodandtovalidateyourdefinitionsandassumptions.Youmaydisagreewithfindings,butyoumustalwaysacknowledgethemandindicatethatyoudidconsidertheirpointsofview.43
Inthewriting,youwilldescriberelevantjournalarticles,periodicals,books,monographs,dissertationsandsoon,indicatingwhateachcontributedtothedevelopmentofyourquestionorhypothesis.Youwillalsousetheliteraturereviewtorefinebothyourquestionandmethod.Nomatterhowcarefullythequestionisconstructed,asyoubecomemorefamiliarwithyourtopic,revisionswilloccur.Eachstudyyoufindwillgenerateotherusefulresearchleads.Also,yourCommitteemembers,otherfacultymembers,andlibrarypersonnelcanhelpyoufindmaterialforthissection.Still,youwillneedtolimitthereview.Donotgetsidetracked.Beguidedbyyourquestionandbythetheme:“Becauseofthiswork,whichI'mparaphrasing,thenextlogicalstepinthestudyofthisissueismyquestion.......”Besuretoalsocomplywithappropriatecopyrightregulations.AvailableonlineisthehandyguidecalledCopyrightLaw&GraduateResearchathttp://www.umi.com/hp/Support/DExplorer/copyrght/.Finally,inthereviewofliterature,youmustevaluateyourinformationsources.All“facts”arenotcreatedequal.Inthisdayofinformationoverload,muchofwhatisdisseminatedissimplynottrueorisbadlydone.Therefore,asaresearcher,youmusttakeacloselookatthematerialandcriticizeit,ifnecessary.Herearesomethingsyoushouldconsiderwhilepreparinganintegrativesummaryofpertinentliterature:1.Doestheinformationappeartobecredible?Credibilitymaybehardtodetermine,butyouneedtoknowwheretheinformationcamefrom,howitwasgathered,whogatheredit,whetherothersourcesagree,andsoon.2.Ifasample-basedsurveywasused,whatwasthesamplesizeandhowweredatagathered?Asmallsamplecanproduceimpressivelookingresultsthathavelittlevalidityorreliability.Acasestudymayindicateexactlytheinformationyouwant,butitisstillonlyonecase.Ontheotherhand,alargesampleisnotnecessarilyagoodsample.Thequestionsare:Wasthesamplerandom?,andDoesitactuallyrepresentthepeopleitissupposedtorepresent?Forexample,alargesampletakenonNovember1,1972,predictedDemocraticPartycandidateGeorgeMcGovernwastheclearfavoriteoftheAmericanpeopleforthepresidency.Theproblemwasnotthesamplesize.TheproblemwastheonlypeoplesampledlivedinMassachusettsandtheDistrictofColumbiaanddidn'trepresentthefeelingsoftherestofthecountry.3.Arethereotherscenariosthatcouldexplainthefindings?Justbecausethesourcecomestoaparticularconclusion,thatdoesn'tmeanyouhavetoagree.Yourliteraturereviewshouldalwaysindicatethatconclusion,butyoucanthengoontogivealternativepossibilitiesofyourown.4.Wasthemethodappropriate?Often,verystrongconclusionsarebasedonveryweakmethods.Lookatwhatwasactuallydoneandaskyourselfhowrealisticorreasonablethatmethodreallywas.TheMethodologySection43
Themethodologysectionisyouroperationalplan—itwilldescribeexactlyandindetailwhatyouplannedtodo.Itshouldbedesignedinsuchawaythatsomeoneunfamiliarwithyourstudycouldtakethissectionanddoexactlywhatyoudid.Itishopedthatyourresearchquestionwillsuggestaclearmethod.Butyouwillstillneedtoexplainthestepsyoutook,whentheyweretaken,andhowyouactuallydidit.Inmanycasesyouwillalsohavetoprovidedefinitionsofvariablesused,explanationsofcontrols,andsoon.Whilethefollowinglistisnotcomplete,thesearepointsyouwillwanttoconsiderinthewrite-up:1.Theactualmethodchosen—survey,contentanalysis,experiment,andsoon—whyitwasselected,howitappliesdirectlytotheproject,andtheactualproceduralstepsfollowed.2.Whatsubjectsandmaterialswereneeded.Ifapplicable,yoursamplesize,howitwasgathered,whereitcamefrom,whyitwasvalid,whatcontrolswereused,andsoon.3.Definitionsofyourvariablesandhowtheyweredetermined.4.Examplesofanyquestionnaires,surveys,orotherdocumentsusedorrequired.(Note:Ifapplicabletoyourstudy,theentirequestionnaireorsurveyinstrumentshouldbeincludedasanAppendix.)5.Howfeasibleistheoperationalplan?Whataretheestimatesoftimeandcost?Indicateinthetimetable—whenyoudidthestudy—howlongittook,whatwerethelimitssetonsuchthingsasthenumberofyearscoveredinacontentanalysisorliteraturereview,andwhythoselimitswerechosen,etc.6.Anysecondarysourcesusedfordata,andwhytheywereselected.7.Howdidyoucheckthevalidityandreliabilityofvariablesoranyinstrumentsused?8.Whatassumptionsdidyoumakeandwhy?9.Whatstatisticaltestswererunandwhichcomputerprogramwasused?10.Sub-studiescompletedunderthemainstudy,exactlywhytheyweredone,andhowtheyrelatetothemainquestion.11.Exactlywhatdatawereactuallygathered,inwhatformandhowtheywerecodedorused.12.Werethereanyotherspecialqualificationsandconsiderationsnecessarytodevelopthisproject?TheFinalVersion43
Thefinalthesisgenerallycontainspolishedversionsofthethreeareasdiscussedabove,plustwoadditionalsectionsorchapters:aResultssectionandaDiscussionorConclusionsection.TheResultsThissectionofthethesisreportsthefindingsfromyourownstudy.Thisisnottheplacetodrawconclusions,butyoumaypointoutimplicationsofthefindingsorsupportforthingsfoundintheliteraturereview—suchas—ThesefindingsseemtosupporttheconclusionsreportedbyBrownandhiscolleagues(Brown,Smith,andJones,1998,p.5).Thisisalsotheplaceforcharts,tables,andgraphs.Makethedataaseasytoreadandascompleteaspossible.Don'tassumethingsorexpectyourCommitteetotakeyourwordforit.Evenwhenvisualaidsareused,anexplanationmuststillbeincludedinthetextitself(i.e.,mostgraphswillrequireacutlineorlegendtoexplainwhatthegraphmeans).Itisalsopossiblethatatthistimeyouwilldiscovermoredataareneededoryourdatacontainfindingsthatwerenotanticipated.Don'tworry;thisneedtoadjustone’sthinkinghappensquiteoften.Ifyoualreadyknewalltheanswers,therewouldbenoneedtodothestudy.Inthecaseofunexpectedresults,justlistthemalongwithyourotherfindings.Inthecaseofnotenoughdata,theproblemisgreater.Atthispointyoumayhavetoclarifythequestionorenlargethemethodtocollecttheneededmaterial.YourCommitteecanhelpwiththisproblem,soletthemguideyourdecision.TheDiscussionorConclusionThefinalchapterisadescriptivesummarythatactuallytakesthereaderbacktothefirstchapterandthenshowshowthefindingsanswerthequestionsandhypothesesyouproposed.Inaddition,thischaptershouldindicatehowtheresultsrelatetootherpeople'swork,asdiscussedinyourreviewofliterature.Finally,thischapteristheplaceforyourownthoughts,conclusions,interpretations,andsoon.Don'tbeafraidtosuggestwhatyoubelievethefindingsmean.Also,suggestalternativeexplanationsandwhyyoufeelyourexplanationsarestronger.Remember,thereaderwilllookforalternativestoyourconclusions,sobeatthemtothepunchandindicateyouhavealreadymadetheseconsiderationsandareopen-mindedtootherpossibilities.Thischapterisalsotheplacetosuggestwhereresearchneedstogofromhere.Nostudytakesintoaccountallsituations,andoftenresearchcreatesasmanyquestionsasitanswers.Don'tbeafraidtopointthatfactout.Whilethislistisfarfromcomplete,yourconclusionsshouldatleastconsider:1.HowdoyourresultsanswereachofthequestionsandhypothesesgiveninChapter1?2.Canyousupporteachofyourconclusionswithspecificresults?3.Haveyoudrawnallpossibleconclusionsfromthedataasreported,regardlessofwhethertheconclusionwasanticipated?43
1.Haveyouclaimedmorethancanactuallybesupportedbythestudy?Thereisatendencyamongresearcherstoimplytoomuch.Don't.2.Haveyourelatedyourresultstootherpeoples'workasreportedinthereviewofliterature?3.Haveyouindicatedhowyourresultsrelateto,orcanbeusefultosociety,scholarshiportheacademicworld,and/ortheprofessionalworld?4.Haveyousuggestedwhatyourfindingsmeaninpracticaltermsandgivenpossiblealternativeexplanations?5.Haveyousuggestedareasforfurtherresearch?Also,whenyourresultsarenotclear,suggestpossiblealternativeexplanationsthatmayclarifytheissues.AcademicWritingStyleThethesismustbewritteninacademicstyle,butshouldremainreadable.ThisisoftenaveryhardtaskevenforMassCommunicationmajors,becausethetypicalthesisstylegoesagainstmuchofwhatyouhavelearned.Remember,undercommonacademicstyle,youmustsuppressyourownopinionsuntilthefinalsection.Uptothatpoint,allclaimsmustbebasedonevidenceortheopinionsofothers.Thisadmonitiondoesnotmeanthereisnoplaceforyourownthinking;itjustcan'tsoundlikeyourownthinking.Forexample,insteadofsaying“obviouslyratingswentdownforseveralyears,”youcouldsay,“accordingtofiguresreportedinVariety,ratingshavebeendecliningforseveralyears.”Anecdotalevidenceisalsoacceptable.ItisOKtowrite,“CopiesoftheCosbyShow,suchasGrowingPainsandDifferentWorld,seemtobedominatingprimetimetelevisionduringthisperiod.”Alsonote,academicwritingtendstoqualifythings,asopposedtotalkinginabsoluteterms.Therearelotsof“seemstobe,”or“isindicated,”or“theevidencewouldsupportthis,”andsoon.Thebestwaytolearnthisstyleistoreadthejournalsinthefieldandwriteaccordingly.Seealsothe“StyleGuidesandProcedure”sectionbelow.MonetarySupportGrantsmaybeavailabletohelpwiththeexpensesofresearch,conventionparticipation,andpublication.FirstcheckwiththeGraduateSchool.Usuallyeligiblefull-timestudentsmustapplypersonallytofortravelawardsadministeredbytheGraduateSchool.Therearespecificdeadlinesandlimitations.Whenyougettothewritingstage,alsocheckwiththeGraduateAdvisorandyourthesisChairaboutotherpossiblefundingsourcesfromyourprogramorprofessionalgroups.AbstractRequirementsBecauseyourabstractwillbeusedbyresearchersandotherstodeterminewhetherornottheywishtoaccessyourcompletethesis,itshouldprovideasuccinct,descriptiveaccountofyour43
work.Theabstractsgenerallyshouldnotexceed300words.Therearetwobasicsetsofrequirementsyouwillneedtocomplywith:1.GraduateSchoolrequirements.StudentssubmittingathesistotheGraduateSchoolmustincludeanabstractineachcopyofthethesis,plusoneextraabstractwithaspecialheadingfortheGraduateSchool’srecords.Becertainthatall“Master’sExamination”and“ThesisReport”formsaresignedbyallCommitteemembersbeforethecopiesaresubmittedtotheGraduateSchool.Formorespecificinformationandexamples,seetheGraduateSchool’sGuidelinesforthePreparationofThesesandDissertations.2.AdditionalrequirementsforgraduatestudentsintheSchoolordepartment.Manyprogramsalsorequiredstudentstopreparethreemoreadditionalversionsoftheabstract.TheseabstractsshouldbesubmittedtotheGraduateAdvisorwithinaweekafterthethesishasbeendefendedandaccepted.OneabstractwillberetainedinyourSchoolfile.ThesecondisforsubmissiontoJournalismandMassCommunicationAbstracts,publishedatnocosttostudentsbytheAssociationforEducationinJournalismandMassCommunication(AEJMC).ThethirdgoestoMaster’sAbstractsInternational,publishedforafeebyUMICompany.AspartoftherequirementforsubmittingtoMaster’sAbstractsInternational,studentsmustalsocompletetheagreementcontracttohavetheirthesesmicrofilmedbytheUMICompany(SeeAppendixE).CopyrightingservicesarealsoavailablefromUMI.Ifyouhavefurtherquestions,consulttheGraduateAdvisorregardingthestyletouse,copiesoftheappropriateforms,andmoredetailsontheamountofcurrentchargesfortheseservices.Whilerecognizingthatnotallthesesareuniformlyexcellent,manydepartmentsputthispolicyrequiringsubmissionofextracopiesofthesisabstractsbystudentstoJournalismandMassCommunicationAbstractsandMaster’sAbstractsInternationalintoeffectforthefollowingreasons:a.Thesesaredesignedtoadvanceknowledge.Withoutbroaderdistributionoftheresults,however,thefindingsarenoteasilydiscoveredbyotherresearchers.b.Publicationofthesisabstractsexpandsparticipationbyourstudentsandfacultyadvisersintheemerginginformationsociety.c.RegularizedpublicationofabstractsenhancesawarenessofMassCommunicationresearchongoingatyourinstitution.d.Thecosttostudentsisrathernegligiblecomparedtothebenefitsofhavingtheirworkpermanentlyregisteredandavailableforphotocopyinginboundformatshouldthey,theirfacultyadvisers,orothersneedaccesstothethesisatalaterdate.Inaddition,youarerequiredtoprovideextracopiesofyourthesiswithyourCommitteeChairandcommitteemembers.Theseneednotbeonthespecial100%cottonragpaperrequiredforyourothercopies,butshouldbenicelyboundinordertomakeyourworkmorewidelyavailableasamodelforotherstudentswhofollow.43
Publishing,Copywriting,andPresentingYourWorkWestronglyencourageallmaster’scandidatestocopyrighttheirindividualthesisandsubsequentlycondensetheirworkforpublicationand/orpresentation.YoucancompletecopyrightrequestsandfeesatthetimeyousubmittoMaster’sAbstractsInternational.TalktoyourCommitteeChairaboutotherpublicationoptions.Ourstudentshavesuccessfullypublishedtheresultsoftheirresearchinacademicandprofessionaljournals,presentedpapersatconventionsusingmultimedia,andwrittenarticlesforpopularmagazinesandnewspapers.Takingthisfinalstepwillhelpdisseminateyourfindingsandbuildyourreputation—abighelpingettingintoaPh.D.programorgettingajob.Bythistime,moststudentsaresickoftheentireidea,soittakesanextrapushtogoforpublication.Theeffortiswellworthit.Thisfinalwrite-upismuchsmallerthanyourthesis(generally12to20pagesor2to4pagesforanop-edpiece).Tocuttheoriginaltothesmallersize,youmayreportonlythemostimportantfindings,condensethereviewofliterature,orfocusononlyonepartofthestudy.Don'tfeelyouhavetogeteverythingintoonearticle.Infact,thesesareoftendividedintoseveralpaperssubmittedforpublication.YourChairwillnormallybegladtohelpyouwiththiswrite-up.Ifyouwanttofurthercollaborate,yourChairmayevenbewillingtoco-authoranarticlewithyou.Thenormsinourdisciplinerequirethatsuchco-authorshipwhenitoccursmustbevoluntaryonyourpart,featureyouasfirstauthor,andnotleadtopublicationsubmissionswithoutyourwrittenconsent.ArrangementofYourThesisSpecificformatandpaginationrequirementsoftheGraduateSchoolareoutlinedinaGuidelinesforthePreparationofThesesandDissertations,whichalsocontainsanumberofexamplepagestohelpyouorganizeyourresearch.Thefollowinglistingshouldgetyouofftoagoodstart:1.TitlePage-Includesthetitleofthethesis,yourname,thedegreebeingcompleted,thefullnameoftheSchoolandUniversity,date,etc.2.Copyright-Thispageisoptional.Thecopyrightcostisquiteinexpensive,andthisamountmaybeaddedtotheMaster’sAbstractsInternationalmicrofilmmoneyorder.3.Dedication-Thispageisoptional.Hereyoucandedicateyourworktosomeone.4.Acknowledgments-Thispageisoptional.Thisisastatementofyourindebtednesstootherpeople.Thecandidate'snamehasnoplaceonthispage.5.Preface-Thissectionisoptional.Itmayincludeanintroductionbysomeonerecognizedasaleaderinthefieldwhohasreadandendorsedyourwork.6.TableofContents-Thisisaclearoutlineofthethesis,givingheadingsandpagenumberswheretopicscanbefound.7.ListofTables,Charts,andGraphs-Thislistgivesapagereferenceforeachtable,chart,andgraphinthestudy.43
1.ListofIllustrations-Thisgivesapagereferenceforeachfigureorgraphinthestudy.2.Abstract-A300-wordsummaryofthemajorfindingsandkeywordsisrequiredbytheGraduateSchoolforinclusioninthethesis.Manydepartmentsalsohavespecialrequirementsaboutsubmissionofabstracts.Note:FromtheDedicationtothispointthepagenumbersareinlower-caseromannumerals(i,ii,iii,ivetc.).3.TheBodyoftheThesis-Thisisthefivesectionstalkedaboutearlier,whichcanbearrangedandmodifiedinvariouswayswiththeapprovalofyourCommittee.4.Endnotes-Thesemayberequiredinsteadoffootnotesdependingonwhichstyleguideisused,sobesuretocheckyourparticularguide.5.Bibliography-Thissectionincludesallprimaryandsecondarysourcesusedinyourresearch:books,articles,newsaccounts,onlinedocuments,lawsandlegalcases,broadcasts,films,writtenunpublishedmaterials,interviewsources,etc.6.Appendix(es)-Theseareallothermaterialsyoufeelshouldbeavailabletoreadersbutwhichdonotfitinthemainbodyofyourthesis.Includedmaybeaglossaryofterms,questionnaires,datalists,reprintsofkeynewsaccountsordocumentscitedinyourthesis,longsectionsusedbypermissionfromotherpeople'swork,andsidenotesorreferenceswhichareimportantbutnotdirectlyrelatedtoyourquestion,etc.EachAppendixislistedbyanalphabeticalletteranddescriptivetitle—suchasAppendixA,B,C,andsoon.7.Index-Thissectionisoptional.TheGraduateSchooldoesnotincludeanindexasamajorelementofthedocumentanddoesnotencouragetheuseofanindexinathesisordissertation.However,eventhoughanindexhasnottraditionallybeenapartofthethesis,newcomputerprogramsavailablemakethisproceduremucheasiertodo.Anindexcanbeagreathelptopeopletryingtouseyourwork.8.Vita/AbouttheAuthor-Thisisabrief,double-spacedbiographicalsketchoftheauthorinparagraphformandinthirdperson.Includedarestatementsabouthis/hereducation,experience,qualifications,andsoon.StyleGuidesandProcedureWebelievescholarlywritingcanstillbereadableandyouarefreetousetheAssociatedPress(AP)styleintermsofabbreviationsandcapitalizationdecisions.AP,however,doesnotaddressanumberofotherissuesrangingfromsubheadstoendnotes,soyouwillneedtoalsoutilizeathesisstylehandbook.Mostprogramswillacceptanyrecognizedstandardwithwhichyou,yourGraduateCommittee,andtheGraduateSchoolarecomfortable.Forexample,youmayusethestyleadoptedbyprominentjournalsthatyouhaveconsultedintheprocessofcompletingyourthesis.However,youmustbeconsistent.CheckwithyourChairastowhichformatismostrecommended.Fivecommonlyusedthesisstyleguides,availableatcampusbookstores,include:43
1.Campbell,WilliamG.,StephenV.Ballou,andCarolSlade.FormandStyle:Theses,Reports,TermPapers.Boston:HoughtonMifflinCo.,latestedition.2.ChicagoEditorialStaff.TheChicagoManualofStyle.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,latestedition.3.Gibaldi,Joseph.MLAHandbookforWritersofResearchPapers.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,latestedition.FromtheModernLanguageAssociation.4.PublicationManualoftheAmericanPsychologicalAssociation.Washington,DC:AmericanPsychologicalAssociation,latestedition.Also,whiletheAPAguideisbecomingthestandardamongmanyjournals,thereareacoupleofchangeswerequireyoutoimplementifthisguideisused.PleasecheckwithyourCommitteeonthechangesbeforeyoustart.Mainlywerequireyouto:a.Includethepagenumberwiththereference.Example:Insteadof(Brown,1997),put(Brown,1997,p.56).b.Includeinterviewsaspartofyourbibliography.Entertheminthisfashion:Brown,B.(Aug.12,1998).TelephoneinterviewconductedatTulaneUniversity.(Interviewwastaped),45min.c.Eliminaterunningheadingsoneachpage.5.Turabian,KateL.AManualforWritersofTermPapers,Theses,andDissertationsChicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,latestedition.Note:Ifpointsofastylemanualdifferfromguidelinesissuedbyyourprogramand/orGraduateSchool,thelatterguidelinestakeprecedence.ThestudentmustbethoroughlyfamiliarwiththeSchool’sandUniversity’srequirementsandabidebythem.Thereareseveralspecializedsoftwarepackagesavailablecommerciallythatautomaticallyadjusttoavarietyofstyles(e.g.,Turabian,ChicagoAandB,APA,MLA,etc.).Seealsohelpfulinformationonwritingathesisandmakingelectronicsourcecitationsatthefollowingwebsites:BeyondtheMLAHandbook:DocumentingElectronicSourcesontheInternet:http://english.ttu.edu/kairos/1.2/inbox/mla_archive.htmlABriefCitationGuideforInternetSourcesinHistoryandtheHumanities(Turabian):http://www.sfu.ca/politics/cite.htmlCitationandStyleGuides:http://arapaho.nsuok.edu/~dreveskr/cged.html-ssiCitationGuidesforElectronicDocuments:http://www.ifla.org/I/training/citation/citing.htm43
ColumbiaGuidetoOnlineStyle:http://www.columbia.edu/cu/cup/cgos/idx_basic.htmlOnlineWriting-RelatedResources:http://owl.clarke.edu/links.htmOnlineWritingSupportCenter:http://www.devry-phx.edu/lrnresrc/dowsc/WebExtensiontoAmericanPsychologicalAssociationStyle:http://www.beadsland.com/weapas/TheWriters’WorkshopOnlineResourcesforWriters:http://www.english.uiuc.edu/cws/wworkshop/index.htmOtherHelpfulOnlineSourcesinclude:AssociationforSupportofGraduateStudents(ASGS):http://www.asgs.org/NationalAssociationofGraduate-ProfessionalStudents(NAGPS):http://www.nagps.org/GraduateRecordExamination(GRE)HomePage:http://www.gre.org/BibliographyAdams,William.AGuidetoThesisandReportPreparationandSoYou’reaMassCommunicationsGraduateStudent.Manhattan,Kansas:A.Q.MillerSchoolofJournalismandMassCommunications,KansasStateUniversity,1992.Adler,MortimerJ.,andCharlesvanDoren.HowtoReadaBook.Rev.andupdateded.NewYork:TouchstoneBooks,Simon&Schuster,1972.Balian,E.S.HowtoDesign,Analyze,andWriteDoctoralResearch.Washington,D.C.:UniversityPressofAmerica,1982.Booth,WayneC.,GregoryG.Colomb,andJosephM.Williams.TheCraftofResearch.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1995.Denzin,NormanK.,andYvonnaS.Lincoln.HandbookofQualitativeResearch.ThousandOaks,CA:Sage,1994.43
GuidetothePreparationofThesesandDissertations.Bloomington:TheGraduateSchool,IndianaUniversity,June1986.GuidelinesforthePreparationofThesesandDissertations.BatonRouge:TheGraduateSchool,LouisianaStateUniversityandA&MCollege,latesteditiononlineathttp://gradlsu.gs.lsu.edu/guidelines2001.pdfGuidelinesforthePreparationofThesesandDissertations.Houston,Texas:CollegeofHumanitiesandFineArts,UniversityofHouston,January1986.Hochberg,Leonard.WorkshopforHonorsStudents.Stanford,CA:DepartmentofSociology,StanfordUniversity,1990.Kaye,Sanford.WritingUnderPressure:TheQuickWritingProcess.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1989.MastersofMilitaryArtandScienceResearchandThesis.Leavenworth,Kansas:U.S.ArmyCommandandGeneralStaffCollege,FortLeavenworth,July1988.Sirkin,R.Mark.StatisticsfortheSocialSciences.ThousandOaks,CA:Sage,1994.Spatt,Brenda.WritingfromSources.NewYork:St.Martin’sPress,1983.vanLeunen,Mary-Claire.AHandbookforScholars.Rev.ed.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1992.43
AppendixA:ConstructingaResearchProjectTHERESEARCHQUESTION:Studentresearchpapersshould:1.testordevelopatheory,2.testorrefineamediaindustrypractice,3.analyzelegal,ethical,orhistoricalquestions,or4.criticallyreviewaconcept,anissue,oramodel.Describeaspreciselyaspossibletheresearchquestionorquestionsthatyouwouldliketheresearchprojecttoansweroraddress.Whathypothesesareyoutesting?THERESEARCHMETHODOLOGY:Discussthemethodologiesthatyouplantouseincarryingoutyourresearchproject.Explainwhyyouhavechosenthoseparticularmethodologies.THEUNIVERSEORPOPULATION:Describeaspreciselyaspossibletheuniverse(orpopulation)fromwhichyouplantodrawthesampleforyourresearchproject.THESAMPLE:Describeaspreciselyaspossiblehowyouplantodrawyoursampleandexplainwhatthesizeofyoursamplewillbe.Pleaseindicateifthesamplewillbedrawnonarandombasisoronjudgmentalorpurposivebasis,orifthereareanyotherspecificsamplingapproachesyouplantofollow.SURVEYINSTRUMENT:Describethetypeofsurveyinstrumentyouareplanningtouseincarryingoutyourresearchproject.Willitbeastructured,primarilyclosed-ended,questionnaireinstrumentforuseonthetelephone,in-person,orthroughthemails?Ifinpersonortelephone,abouthowlongwillinterviewsrun?Ifamailquestionnaire,abouthowmanyquestionswilltheinstrumentcontain?Ifyourapproachiscontentanalysis,whattypeofsurveyinstrumentsdoyouplantodevelop?Howwouldyoucodeandcategorizetheitemsyouselect?DATACOLLECTION:Indicateaspreciselyaspossiblehowyouproposetocollectyourdataandhowlongyouanticipatebeinginthefield.Specifystatehowyouplantodealwithnon-respondentsorthoseindividualswhoyouwouldliketointerviewthatprovenexttoimpossibletoreach.RESEARCHTIMETABLE:Presentasdetailedatimetableasyoucan,givingdatesforcompletionofsampledesignwork,forquestionnairepreparation,fordatacollection,fordatatabulation,fordataanalysis,andforpreparationofyourwrittenfindings.DATATABULATIONANDANALYSIS:Describeaspreciselyasyoucanhowyouproposetotabulatethedataandanalyzetheresults.Discussanyspecialstatisticalanalyticaltechniquesyoucontemplateusing.PRESENTATIONORDEFENSE:Whencompleted,youmustbepreparedtoorallyandvisuallyexplainyourwork(includinguseofmultimediapresentations).43
AppendixB:AdvantagesandDisadvantagesofaCaseStudy(preparedbyDr.AliM.Kanso,UniversityofTexasatSanAntonio,alimkanso@hotmail.com)Thecasestudytechniqueofferstheresearcheranopportunitytodealwithawidespectrumofinformationabouttheresearchtopic.Documents,historicalartifacts,systematicinterviews,directobservation,andtraditionalsurveyscanallbeincorporatedintoacasestudy.Themoredatasourcesaresearchercanbringtobearinacase,themorelikelyhis/herstudywillbevalid.Thecasestudyisparticularlyadvantageoustotheresearcherwhoattemptstofindideasandcluesforfurtherresearch.Thisstatementdoesnotsuggest,however,thatcasestudiesaretobeusedonlyattheexploratorystageofresearch.Thetechniquecanalsobeusedtogatherdescriptiveandexplanatorydata.Ideally,casestudiesshouldbeusedincombinationwiththeorytoachievemaximumunderstanding.Asaresult,casestudiesarewidelyusedinmasscommunicationthesesthatfocusonprofessionalpracticesandissues.Criticssometimesdownplaythesignificanceofcasestudiesfortheirgenerallackofscientificrigor.Theypointoutthatmanytimestheinvestigatorshavebeensloppyandallowedequivocalevidenceorbiasedviewstoinfluencethefindingsandtheconclusion.Anothercriticismisthatcasestudiesmayprovetime-consumingandoccasionallyproducemassivequantitiesofdatathatarehardtosummarizeandtoooftenpoorlypresented.Athirdcriticismisthatcasestudiesarenoteasilyopentogeneralization.Ifthemaingoaloftheresearcheristomakeastatistically-based,normativestatementaboutthefrequencyofoccurrenceofaphenomenoninadefinedpopulation,thensomeothermethodsmaybemoreappropriate.Thesecriticalobservations,however,donotimplythattheresultsofallcasestudiesareidiosyncratic.Infact,ifgeneralizingatheoreticpropositiontoaprofessionaltopicisthemainobjective,thecasestudymethodiswellsuitedtothetask.CaseStudyStagesNoprecisemethodofconductingacasestudyhasbeendocumentedyet.However,manypractitionersagreethatacasestudyshouldconsistofthefollowingsixdistinctstages:design,pilotstudy,datacollection,dataanalysis,reportwriting,andorally/visuallypresentingyourfindings.A.Design.Thefirstconcerniswhattoask.Thecasestudyismostappropriateforquestionsthatbeginwith“how”or“why.”Aclearandpreciseresearchquestionwillfocustheremainderoftheeffortsinacasestudy.Thesecondconcerniswhattoanalyze.Whatexactlyconstitutesa“case”?Inmanyinstances,acasemaybeanindividual,severalindividuals,aneventorevents.Ifinformationisgatheredabouteachrelevantindividual,thefindingsarereportedinthesingleormultiplecasestudyformat.Insomesituations,thepreciseboundariesofthecasearehardertopinpoint.Forexample,acasemightbeaspecificdecision,aprogram,orsomediscreteevent.Priorresearchliteratureshouldprovidearoughguidetoselectingtheunitofanalysis.43
B.PilotStudy.Beforethepilotstudyiscarriedout,thecasestudyresearcherconstructsastudyprotocol.Thisdocumentspecifiestheprocedurestobeusedinthestudyandoutlinesthedata-gatheringinstrumentorinstruments.Agoodcasestudyprotocolcontainsthestepsnecessaryforgainingaccesstoaparticularpersonororganization.Itshouldalsolistthequestionscentraltotheinquiryandthepossiblesourcesofinformationtobetappedinansweringthesequestions.Ifinterviews,forexample,aretobeusedinthecasestudy,theprotocolshouldcontainthequestionstobeasked.Oncetheprotocolhasbeendeveloped,theresearcherisreadytogointothefieldforthepilotstudy.Themainobjectiveofthepilotstudyistorefineboththeresearchdesignandthefieldprocedures.Variablesthatwerenotforeseenduringthedesignphasecancropupduringthepilotstudy,andproblemswiththeprotocolorwithstudylogisticscanalsobeuncovered.C.DataCollection.Mostcasestudyresearchersrecommendtheuseofmultiplesourcesofdata.Suchsourceshelptheinvestigatorimprovethereliabilityandvalidityofhis/herstudy.Thereareatleastfivesourcesofdatathatcanbeusedincasestudies.Onesourceisdocuments.Theyrepresentarichdatasourceandmaytaketheformofletters,memos,minutes,agendas,historicalrecords,andsoon.Asecondsourceofcasestudydataistheinterview.Mostcasestudyinterviewsareeitheropen-endedorfocused.Anopen-endedinterviewcancoverawiderangeoftopics.Inafocusedinterview,theinterviewergenerallyusesasetofpredeterminedquestionsoratleastspecifictopicareastobeinvestigated.Observationandparticipantobservation,respectively,arethethirdandfourthtechniquesthatmaybeusedincasestudies.Thelastsourceofevidenceisthephysicalartifact—atool,apieceoffurniture,orevenacomputerprintout.Artifactsarecommonlyusedasadatasourceinanthropologyandhistorybutnotinmassmediacasestudyresearch.Theyare,however,frequentlyusedinlegalresearchconcerningmedia.D.DataAnalysis.Unlikemorequantitativeresearchtechniques,therearenospecificformulasor“cookbook”techniquestoguidetheresearcherinanalyzingthedata.Asaresult,thisstageisprobablythemostdifficultinthecasestudymethod.Theliteraturehassuggestedthreebroadanalyticstrategies:patternmatching,explanationbuilding,andtimeseries.Inthepattern-matchingstrategy,anempiricallybasedpatterniscomparedwithapredictedpatternorseveralalternativepredictedpatterns.Forinstance,supposeanewspaperisabouttoinstituteanewmanagementtool:aregularseriesofmeetingsbetweentopmanagementandreporters,excludingeditors.Basedonorganizationaltheory,aresearchermightpredictcertainoutcomes,namely,morestressbetweeneditorsandreporters,increasedproductivity,weakenedsupervisorylinks,andsoon.Ifanalysisofthecasestudydataindicatesthattheseresultsdidinfactoccur,someconclusionsaboutthemanagementchangecanbemade.Ifthepredictedpatterndidnotmatchtheactualone,theinitialstudypropositionswouldhavetobequestioned.Theanalysisstrategyofexplanationbuildingtakesseveralformsinwhichtheresearchertriestoconstructanexplanationaboutthecasebymakingstatementsaboutthecause(s)ofthephenomenonunderstudy.Typically,however,aninvestigatordraftsaninitialtheoreticalstatementaboutsomeprocessoroutcome,comparesthefindingsofaninitialcasestudyagainstthestatement,revisesthestatement,analyzesasecondcomparablecase,andrepeats43
thisprocessasmanytimesasnecessary.Forexample,toexplainwhysomenewcommunicationtechnologiesarefailing,aresearchermightsuggestlackofmanagerialexpertiseasaninitialproposition.Butaninvestigatorwhoexaminedthesubscriptiontelevisionindustrymightfindthatlackofmanagerialexpertiseisonlypartoftheproblem—inadequatemarketresearchisalsocontributory.Armedwiththerevisedversionoftheexplanatorystatement,theresearcherwouldnextexaminethedirectbroadcastsatelliteindustrytoseewhetherthisexplanationneedstobefurtherrefined,andsoon,untilafullandsatisfactoryanswerisachieved.Inthethirdanalyticstrategy—timeseriesanalysis—theinvestigatortriestocompareaseriesofdatapointstosometheoretictrendthatwaspredictedbeforetheresearch,ortosomerivaltrend.If,forinstance,severalcitieshaveexperiencednewspaperstrikes,acasestudyinvestigatormightgeneratepredictionsaboutthechangesininformation-seekingbehaviorsofresidentsinthesecommunitiesandconductacasestudytoseewhetherthesepredictionsweresupported.E.ReportWriting.Thecasestudyreportcantakeseveralforms.Itcanfollowthetraditionalresearchformat:problemdefinition,methods,findings,anddiscussion.Oritcanusenon-traditionaltechniques.Forinstance,somecasestudiesarebestsuitedforachronologicalarrangement,whileotherscanbebestreportedinacomparativeway.F.Orally/VisuallyPresentingYourFindings.Severalhelpfulonlineresourcescanaidyouwhenyoumustdeliveryourcasestudyresults.CheckouttheEffectivePresentationswebsiteathttp://www.kumc.edu/SAH/OTEd/jradel/effective.htmlandthePresentersUniversityhomepageathttp://www.presentersuniversity.com/courses/index.cfmsponsoredbyProxima.Regardlessofthechosenform,theresearchershouldalwaysconsidertheintendedaudienceofthereport.Acasestudyreportsubmittedtochiefexecutiveofficershastoadoptastyledifferentfromonethatiswrittenforscholarlyjournals.Themostimportantsectionofthereportisthesummary.Itshouldclearlyexplainwhetherassumptionshavebeenconfirmedordeniedandwhethernaggingdoubtsaboutthefindingsprevail.__________________________________________________________Mostoftheseguidelinesweretakenfrom:Altheide,DavidL.QualitativeMediaAnalysis.ThousandOaks,CA:Sage,1996.Baran,StanleyJ.,andDennisK.Davis.MassCommunicationTheory:Foundations,FermentandFuture.Belmont,CA:Wadsworth,1995.Creswell,JohnW.ResearchDesign:QualitativeandQuantitativeApproaches.ThousandOaks,CA:Sage,1994.Denzin,NormanK.,andYvonnaS.Lincoln.HandbookofQualitativeResearch.ThousandOaks,CA:Sage,1994.Fink,Arlene,andJacquelineKosecoff.HowtoConductSurveys:AStep-by-StepGuide.BeverlyHills,CA:Sage,1985.Krueger,RichardA.FocusGroups:APracticalGuideforAppliedResearch.ThousandOaks,CA:Sage,1994.43
Lavrakas,PaulJ.TelephoneSurveyMethods:Sampling,Selection,andSupervision.2ded.NewburyPark,CA:Sage,1993.Mariampolski,Hy.QualitativeMarketResearch:AComprehensiveGuide.ThousandOaks,CA:Sage,2001.Marshall,Catherine,andGretchenB.Rossman.DesigningQualitativeResearch.2ded.ThousandOaks,CA:Sage,1994.Mason,Jennifer.QualitativeResearching.ThousandOaks,CA:Sage,1996,1997.Maxwell,JosephA.QualitativeResearchDesign.ThousandOaks,CA:Sage,1996.Miles,MatthewB.,andA.MichaelHuberman.QualitativeDataAnalysis:AnExpandedSourcebook.2ded.ThousandOaks,CA:Sage,1994.Rubin,H.AppliedSocialResearch.Columbus,OH:CharlesMerrill,1984.Simon,J.BasicResearchMethodsinSocialScience.NewYork:RandomHouse,1969.Stake,RobertE.TheArtofCaseStudyResearch.ThousandOaks,CA:Sage,1995.Stempel,G.,andB.Westly.ResearchinMassCommunication.2nded.EngelwoodCliffs,NJ:Prentice-Hall,1989.Stewart,DavidW.,andPremN.Shamdasani.FocusGroups:TheoryandPractice.NewburyPark,CA:Sage,1990.Weitzman,EbenA.,andMatthewB.Miles.ComputerProgramsforQualitativeDataAnalysis.ThousandOaks,CA:Sage,1995.Wimmer,Roger,andJosephR.Dominick.MassMediaResearch:AnIntroduction.4thed.Belmont,CA:Wadsworth,1994.Yin,R.CaseStudyResearch.2ded.ThousandOaks,CA:SagePublications,1994.43
AppendixC:HowNotToDoAcknowledgmentsAcknowledgmentsForwritingthisthesis,Iacknowledgemyself.Iwroteit.SomemightarguethatIoweanoteofgratitudetoDr.JohnR.Doe,foritwashewhofurnishedmewiththeidea,hewhospentmanyhoursreadingshoddydrafts,andhewhogavemeapatonthebackintimesofdespair.Buthedidn'twritethethesis.Iwroteit,sothere.SomemightarguethatIowemyparentsandfriendsanoteofgratitude.Letmeputforththequestion:Didtheywritethisthesis?Idaresayno.Iwroteit,sothere.SomemightalsoarguethatIowemyCommitteeanoteofgratitudebecausetheyhadtospendseveralhoursreadingthethesis.Letmeputforthanotherquestion:Isithardertoreadorwriteathesis?Iwouldarguethatitishardertowritethethesis.Granted,IwouldbethefirsttoacknowledgethoseontheCommitteeiftheyhadwrittenthethesis.Buttheydidnot.Remember,Iwrotethethesis.Giventhatpremise,Iherebymodestlyacknowledge—andthank—myself.(NOTE:Athesisisnotafrivolousdocument.ItisbesttoassumeyourCommitteehasabsolutelynosenseofhumorandplayitstraight.Afterall,whyblowitatthispoint?However,youarewelcometoaddthefollowing:Iwishtodedicatethisthesisto(ADDNAMEOFYOURFAVORITEPROFESSOR),whoseintrepidspirit,boundlesshelp,andendlessencouragementmadethisworkpossible!)43
AppendixD:JournalismandMassCommunicationAbstractsFormJournalismandMassCommunicationAbstractscontainsabstractsofmasters’thesesanddoctoraldissertationsacceptedforgraduatedegrees.Thisisanexcellentreferencesourceforliteratureonjournalismandmasscommunicationtopics.Youcansearchonlineathttp://www.aejmc.org/abstracts/index.htmlTheAbstractshavebeenpublishedannuallysince1963bytheAssociationforEducationinJournalismandMassCommunication(AEJMC);webpage:http://www.aejmc.org/.Thereisnocosttohaveyourthesislisted.SomeformsareavailablefromtheGraduateAdvisor.Formorespecificinformationandtosubmitmaterialonyourthesis,contact:ProfessorGilbertFowlerEditor,JournalismandMassCommunicationAbstractsDepartmentofJournalismandPrintingArkansasStateUniversityP.O.Box1930StateUniversity,AR72467-1930Phone:(870)972-3075Fax:(870)972-3856gfowler@astate.edu43
AppendixE:Master’sAbstractsInternationalInformation1.GototheUMICompanywebsite:http://www.umi.com/hp/Support/DExplorer/prepare/2.PreparingyourthesisforMaster’sAbstractsInternationalandpublication:Onlyyoucandotheresearchandthethinking,butUMIisreadytohelpyoumeetsomeofthelogisticalrequirementsforasuccessfulMaster’sthesis.UMIpublishesthesesonlyfromaccreditedinstitutions(suchasLSU)andonlywithasignedpublishingagreementfromeachauthor.Whenyourmanuscriptisacceptedandsubmitted,you'llalsobenefitfromtheseUMIauthorservices:qualitycontrol,copyrightclearance,indexing,archiving,publication,andmarketing.Youmayevensubmityourthesisinelectronicformat.UMIoffersfreeinformationalpacketswithcomprehensivedetailsabouttheabstract/publishingprocessandotherUMIservices,alongwiththeformstofillout.TorequestafreecopyofPublishingYourMaster'sThesis,call1-800-521-0600,ext.7020,orusetheirwebsiteelectronicorderformathttp://www.umi.com/hp/Support/DExplorer/order/PacForm.html3.UMIoffersanumberofotherresourcestohelpyouwriteandsubmityourthesisforpublication:Whenyou'refinished,UMIhelpsyouwithqualitycontrol,copyright,indexing,archiving,publication,andmarketing,whileyouretainallyourrightsandroyalties.Here'swhattheydoafteryousendthemyourthesis:•Examineitpagebypageforcompleteness(about10%ofthosesubmittedlackoneormorepages)•Actasyourcopyrightagent,ifyouwishthemto(overathirdofauthorsdo)•Publishyourmanuscript•PublishtheabstractandafullbibliographiccitationintheMasters’AbstractsInternationaldatabaseandotherDissertationAbstractsreferenceproductswhereresearchers/scholarswillbeablesearchforthem•Generateanddistributecopiesondemand•Sendyouroyaltycheckswhensevenormorecopiesaresoldwithinacalendaryear4.Copyrightingyourownthesis:Ifyouwanttoregisteryourcopyright,UMIwillhandlethedetailsandactasyouragentwiththeLibraryofCongressCopyrightOfficeaspartofthepublishingprocess.Theywillprepareanapplicationinyourname,submityourapplicationfee,anddeposittherequiredcopyorcopiesofthemanuscript.Whentheychecknewmanuscriptsin,oneofthethingstheylookforiscopyrightcompliance.Ifyouhaven'talreadyreceivedpermissiontousematerialsbyotherauthors,UMImayhavetowaituntilyougetthepermissionauthorizationsbeforetheycanpublishyourthesis.UMIstaffarereadytohelpinotherways.Forexample,Dr.KennethD.Crewshaspreparedafreebookletforthesisanddissertationauthors,CopyrightLaw&GraduateResearch:NewMedia,NewRights,andYourNewDissertation,availableinhardcopyfromUMIoronlineathttp://www.umi.com/hp/Support/DExplorer/copyrght/43
AppendixF:AnAbbreviatedAssociatedPressStyleGuideToordertheAssociatedPressStylebookandLibelManual,visittheAPwebsiteathttp://www.ap.org/pages/order.htmlorcallAPNewsfeaturesat(212)621-1821;fax(212)621-1567.LinkstostyleguidesandotherresourcesforwritersareincludedontheEditProsWebsiteathttp://www.editpros.com/resource.html.BasicnewswritingstyleguideandcopyeditorsymbolsfortheMassCommunicationstudent.ThecontentisinaccordancewiththeAssociatedPressstyleacceptedbyjournalistsworldwide.Thecreationofthispage,however,isinnowayaffiliatedwiththeAssociatedPress.Commonmistakestoavoidinnewspaperwriting:AffectandEffectAffectisaverbandmeanstoinfluences,touchorchange.Effectisanounmeaningtobringtopassortoaccomplish.Example:“Ifthisstylebookaffectsyourwritingskillsastheinstructorwouldlike,theeffectwillshowintheschoolpublication.”*****************************************************************Allude/EludeToalludeistomentionindirectly.Forexample,“Whenshealludedtowoman'sbestfriend,shewasreferringtodiamonds.”Toeludeistoevadeoravoid.Forexample,“Hewasabletoeludepolicebydartingintoadarkalley.”*****************************************************************AlotAlotistwowords.Thoughalotisusedalot,itisincorrect.*****************************************************************43
a.m./p.m.InLatin,a.m.meansantemeridian,orbeforenoon.InLatin,p.m.meanspostmeridian,orafternoon.Botha.m.andp.m.shouldalwaysbelowercasewithperiodsbetweentheletters.*****************************************************************Among/BetweenUseamongtodescribearelationshipthatiscollectiveorvague.Therelationshipshouldnotinvolvetwothings.Forexample,“AmongallVietnamveterans,thereisabondthatotherscannotunderstand.”Usebetweentoexpressarelationshipofonethingtoanother,orofonethingtoseveralotherthingsindividually.Forexample,“Thecoachhadtochoosebetweenthetwobestplayersforcaptain.”*****************************************************************Amount/NumberAnamountreferstoaquantity.Forexample,“Thatisahugeamountoffat,“or“Withthatamountofhair,Idon'tseehowshecanwashit.”Anamountshouldbepairedwiththetermslessthan.Anumberreferstocountableitems.Forexample,“Aftercountingthesurvivors,theynumberedonly10,”or“Thatisahugenumberofdolphins!”Anumbershouldbepairedwiththetermsfewerthan.*****************************************************************As/BecauseThoughasandbecausehavesimilarmeanings,becauseisthepreferredword.Insomeusage,asmaybeweak,tediouslyBritishandout-of-date.Forexample,“IdecidedtogotosleepasIwastired,”isbettersaidas“IdecidedtogotosleepbecauseIwastired.”*****************************************************************AsorAsif/LikeWhenoneuseslikeasapreposition,itisonlycorrectif“similar,”“similarto”or“similarlyto”canbeusedinplaceoflike.Forexample,“Shecanswimlikeafish,”isacorrectuseoflikesince“Shecanswimsimilartoafish”soundsright.But,“Thefive-year-oldcouldreadlikeshewas10”isincorrect,since“Thefive-year-oldcouldreadsimilartoshewas10”doesn'twork.Inthatsentence,useasifinplaceoflike.Also,asthoughisnotalwaysasynonymforasif.Forexample,“Johnlooksasifheisangry,”isthesameasusing“Helooksashewouldlookifhewereangry.”Touse“Johnlooksasthough43
heisangry,”means“Johnlooksashewouldlookthoughhewereangry,”andthisisnottheintendedmeaning.*****************************************************************Becauseof/DuetoDuetoisoftenmisused.Insteadofusingdueto,usebecauseof.Ifduetoisusedcorrectly,itwilldirectlyfollowsomeformofthetobeverb.Forexample,“Hergoodgradeswereduetodedicationandhardwork,”iscorrect.Yet,“Shereceivedgoodgradesduetodedicationandhardwork”isincorrect.“Shereceivedgoodgradesbecauseofdedicationandhardwork”iscorrect.*****************************************************************Before/PriortoSinceoneisnotapttouseanteriortoinplaceofafter,oneshouldnotusepriortoinplaceofbefore.Beforeissimple,souseit.*****************************************************************Ibelieve/Ifeel/IthinkThesethreeverbsarenotinterchangeable.Onebelieveswiththeheart,soulorfaith.“Shebelievedshewasinlovewithherlabpartner.”Onefeelswiththesensesoremotions.“Shefeelsasifhemaylovehertoo.”Onethinkswiththemind,intellectorreason.“Shethinksherparentswilldisapproveoftherelationship.”*****************************************************************Blond/BlondeBlondisanadjectiveusedtodescribeaperson'shaircolor.Forexample,“Inthesummer,herhairisblond.”Butblondmayalsobeanoun,whenusedtorefertoamalewithblondhair.Forexample,“Thatblondisagreattennisplayer,andheisagreatswimmertoo.”Blondeisanounusedtorefertoafemalewithblondhair.Forexample,“ThatblondelookslikePamelaAnderson,butshealsolookslikeyoursister!”*****************************************************************Burglary/RobberyBurglaryisstealingwithoutthreatofforceorviolence,suchasstealinggoodsfromaresidencewhilenooneishomeorstealingfromastorewhenitisclosed.Forexample,“TheburglarbrokeintotheSmith'shousewhiletheywereonvacationandstolemanyvaluables.”43
Robberyisstealingwithathreatofforceorviolence,suchasarobberusingaguntohold-upacashier.Forexample,“TherobberpointedagunatMr.Smithandtoldhimtoputhiswalletinthebagofloot.”*****************************************************************Can/MayThesewordsarenotinterchangeableinthecontextofpossibility.Ifshecandosomething,thatmeansitisphysicallypossibleforhertodoit.Forexample,“IcanearnaCPRcertificateifIcompletethecourse,”meansthatIamphysicallyabletocompletethecourse.Ifshemaydosomething,thatmeansthereisachanceshewilldoit.Forexample,“ImayearnaCPRcertificateifIcompletethecourse,”meansthatImayormaynotearnacertificate.*****************************************************************Capital/CapitolAcapitalisaheadcity.Donotusecapitalcity,asitisredundant.Forexample,“WashingtonDCisthecapitaloftheUnitedStates.”Acapitolisabuildingwherethegovernmentmeets.Donotusecapitolbuildingasitisredundant.Also,CapitolisusuallycapitalizedinreferencetoWashingtonDC'sgovernmentbuilding.Forexample,“TheworkerscompletedrenovationsinthecapitolinRichmond,”but,“TheSecretaryofStatedidn'twanttogototheCapitol.”******************************************************************Commas&PeriodsThesepunctuationmarksalwaysgoinsidequotationmarks.Forexample,“Iliketogoswimming,”shesaid,“butIamafraidofgettingsunburned.”Alsonotethatsemi-colonsandcolonsdonotgoinsidequotationmarks.******************************************************************CommaswithAppositivesInasentence,commasshouldonlygoaroundanameifthereisonlyoneofthatperson.Apersoncanonlyhaveonemother,father,husbandorwife,butcouldhavemanybrothersorcousins.Forexample,“MybrotherScottandmymother,Jan,wentshoppingwithmycousinEricandmyhusband,Todd.”ScottmaynotbetheonlybrotherandEricmaynotbetheonlycousin,sotheyarenotsurroundedbycommas.*****************************************************************Compareto/Comparewith43
Tocompareonethingtoanother,thethingsshouldbedissimilar.Forexample,“Icomparedmyfriendtoaturtlebecausetheyarebothsoslow.”Ahumanandaturtlearenotsimilar.Tocompareonethingwithanother,thethingsshouldbeinthesameclassorcategory.Forexample,“WhencomparedwithbillionaireDonaldTrump,millionaireJuliaRobertsdidn'tseemtohavethatmuchmoney.”*****************************************************************ItsandIt's·“It's”isacontractionforitis.·“Its”showspossession.WorkingWithWords1.Donotassumeyourreadershavetoomuchinformation.Bespecificwithyourinformation.Identifythoroughlyeverypersoninyourstorywithatleastthreefactors.Thefirstandlastnamesandmiddleinitialaregoodforastarter.Ageisasecondfactorandtheperson'saddressmakesathirdfactor.Aprofessionisalsoafactorthatoftenisused.Ineveryinstanceusethefirstandlastnamewithfirstmention.Afterthatusethelastname.2.Whenreferringtotime,usea.m.andp.m.afterthehour.Example:“Thefinalexamsarescheduledat8a.m.Friday.”Note,thehourcomesbeforetheday,perAssociatedPressstyle.Also,itisredundanttowrite,“Friday,Sept.18.”Souseoneortheother.Notboth.3.Donotusecontractions.Whileusingacontractionmayseemmoreconversationalitisnotcorrect.4.Ingivinglistsofofficers,puttheperson'snamebeforethetitle.Thus:JohnSmith,president;HarryJones,vicepresident;HelenDavis,secretary,andDorisDavis,treasurer.(Note:Semicolonsarenecessaryforseparatingapersonandhistitlefromasecondpersonandhistitleunlessaconjunctionisused.)5.Sumsofmoneyareconsideredsingular.“Tuitionforonesemesteris$1,500.”6.Use“morethan”insteadof“over”inreferringtosumsofmoneyornumberofpeople.“Buildingthedamwillcostmorethan$2million.”“Morethan5,000personsattendedtherockconcertatArtichokeStadium.”7.Use“fewerthan”fornumbersand“lessthan”forquantity.43
“Fewerthan100personsattendedtherally.”“IttakeslessthanagallonofgastodrivetoFlagstaff.”Capitalization1.Incaseofdoubt,uselowercase.2.Capitalizeatitleprecedinganamebutlowercasewhenitfollowsaname.Example:ChiefofPoliceSamBlackExample:SamBlack,chiefofpolice3.Capitalizefederalandstatedepartmentswhentheentirenameisused.Example:DepartmentofAgricultureExample:BureauofVitalStatisticsDonotcapitalizefiredepartment,policedepartment.4.CapitalizeEast,West,North,SouthandMidwestwhenreferringtoadefiniteregion.Donotcapitalizeeast,west,northandsouthwhenreferringtoadirection.5.WritesouthernArizona,northernEurope,etc.6.Capitalizethefirstwordofadirectquote:Jonessaid:“Youshouldhavepuntedonfourthdown.”7.Capitalizecollegedegreeswhetherwritteninfullorabbreviated.Example:BachelorofArtsExample:Ph.D.Abbreviations1.Neveruseanabbreviationforanameororganizationunlessthenamefirsthasbeenusedinfullinthestory.2.Thefollowingareabbreviationsforthestates:Ala.,Ariz.,Ark.,Calif.,Colo.,Conn.,D.C.,Del.,Fla.,Ga.,Ill.,Ind.,Kan.,Ky.,La.,Md.,Mass.,Mich.,Minn.,Mo.,Mont.,Neb.,Nev.,N.H.,N.J.,N.M.,N.Y.,N.C.,N.D.,Okla.,Ore.,Pa.,R.I.,S.C.,S.D.,Tenn.,Vt.,Va.,Wash.,W.Va.,Wis.,Wyo.Thefollowingarenotabbreviated:Alaska,Hawaii,Idaho,Iowa,Maine,Ohio,UtahandTexas.43
3.Donotabbreviatenamesofstatesexceptwhentheyfollowthenamesofcities:Valdosta,Ga.,butincentralArizona.4.Omitthenamesofstatesafterwell-knowncities:Chicago,NewYork,Phoenix,LosAngeles,etc.5.Atitleusedbeforeanameisabbreviatedifwellknown,suchasDr.Jones;Dist.Atty.BillWilliams.OthertitlesthatareabbreviatedwhenprecedinganameincludestheRev.,Gov.,Lt.Gov.,Atty.Gen.Supt.Titlesafternamesarenotabbreviated.6.Abbreviatethenamesofmonthswhensucceededbyanumber,Jan.5asopposedtoinmidJanuary.7.Spelloutpercent.Usefiguresbeforeitevenwhentheyarelessthan10.8.Abbreviatestreets,avenuesandboulevardwhenusedinacompleteaddress.Otherwisespellitout:2605E.IndianSchoolRd.,alongIndianSchoolRoad.Figures1.Usefiguresforallnumbers10andabove.Spelloutthosenineorbelow,withexceptionsofstatisticsusedinastory.Forages,dates,timeofday,scores,sumsofmoneyandstreetnumbers,percentages,obviouslyuseoffiguresiscalledfor.2.Spelloutallnumbersbeginningsentencebutbeginfewsentencesinthismanner.Titles1.DonotuseMr.whenthefirstnameorinitialsaregiven.JohnJ.Smith,notMr.JohnJ.Smith.TheexceptionisMr.andMrs.JohnJ.Smithwhensuchtitlesandapprovedbythecouple.PreferabletodayisJohnJ.andJaneSmith.2.Useoftheabbreviationfordoctor,Dr.isusedonlyinfrontofmedicaldoctors.Collegeprofessorsdonotrateatitleinfrontoftheirnameotherthanprofessor.3.Inmostcaseswithmalesandfemales,thelastnamewillsufficeafterhavingusedboththefirstname,middleinitialandlastnameinidentifyinganewsmaker.ManynewspapersstilluseMrs.,Miss.,orMs.,infrontofwoman'slastnameinsecondreferencesincethefeministmovement.Stayawayfromthepersonaltouchofusingaperson'sfirstnameonlyinthesecondreference.43
4.WhenreferringtoaministerorpriestavoidusingRev.forReverendinfrontofthename.Reverendshouldbeabbreviatedbeforeanameandprecededwitha“the.”ProperuseistheRev.JamesJones.Quotations1.Beginandendquotedmatterwithquotationmarks.Whenquotedmatterisbrokenintoparagraphs,placequotesatthefirstofeachparagraphbutleavetheendoftheparagraphopenuntiltheendofthequote.Example:JoeSmithsaid,“Ireadthepapersevendaysaweektostayinformedofinternationalandlocalnews.“IfImissadayIfeeloutoftouch.”2.Usesinglequotationmarkswhenquotingwithinquotesandsinglequotesinheadlines.3.Quotetitleofsongs,operas,etc.4.QuotefulltitlesofbooksexceptbooksoftheBible.Punctuation1.Generallyomitnon-essentialpunctuationandwhenindoubtdonotpunctuate.Useitwhenitmakesreadingeasier.2.Usecommastosetoffnon-essential,orasyourEnglishprofessorcallsthem,non-restrictiveclausesandphrases.Whenaphraseisnecessarytoexplainthesubjectoranouninasentence,itiscalledanessentialphrase.Whenthephrasejustaddsinformation,itisnon-essential.·Non-essential:Smith,whowasallstateonthefootballsquadinhighschool,wasselectedasMr.BigonCampus.·Essential:TheDemocratswhoweredissatisfiedboltedtheparty.Onlythosewhoweredissatisfiedbolted.Sothephraseisnecessarytoclarifywholefttheparty.3.Usecommastosetapartparentheticalexpressionsorexpressionsinapposition:JohnLand,ASUsophomore,spoketothegroup.4.Usecommastosetoffthesecondandallfollowingitemsinaddressesanddates:HecamehereSept.12,1989,fromTopeka,Kan.43
5.Usecommasinaseriesofnames:JohnJones,EvelynWilliams,DonMillerandBillSmith.Whenaconjunctionisused,itreplacestheneedforacomma.6.Usecommaswhenseparatingaperson'snamefromhisplaceofresidence:JonMartin,1234N.ClarendonRd.Ifyouprefer,JonJonesof1234N.ClarendonLn.Donotusebothcommaandof.7.DonotusecommastosetoffJr.orSr.Example:JoeJonesJr.orBillToddSr.8.Whenquotingsomeone,thepunctuationisinsidethequotationmarks.“Ifeelitisnotworththeprice,”Smithsaid.43
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